Vive La France, Canada Qui Est

French Canada was guarded by limited number royal troops in the 17th and 18th centuries. With a small colonial population and massive amounts of land, the few Royal soldiers were often stretched thin as they tried to keep the kings North American Empire safe. In the end they were too few to match the British Colonial expansion wars which cumulated in the French and Indian War 1753-64 (Seven Years War in Europe). With the British victory, France lost Canada and their Louisiana territories and the long-suffering French regulars were withdrawn.  Until the next war - during the American Revolution.

Slaves in Colonial America

 

1st Slaves in the English Colonies

The following is from:
Historic Jamestowne National Historic Park,
https://www.nps.gov/jame/learn/historyculture/african-americans-at-jamestown.htm
2/10/2021

accessed 11/01/2021 

"The first documented arrival of Africans to the colony of Virginia was recorded by John Rolfe: "About the latter end of August, a Dutch man of Warr of the burden of a 160 tunes arrived at Point-Comfort, the Comandors name Capt Jope, his Pilott for the West Indies one Mr Marmaduke an Englishman. … He brought not any thing but 20. and odd Negroes, w[hich] the Governo[r] and Cape Merchant bought for victuall[s]." The year was 1619, and as an institution slavery did not yet exist in Virginia. Slavery as we know it today, evolved gradually, beginning with customs rather than laws. To further shed light on how this institution evolved legally, from indentured servitude to life long servitude, the following laws and/or facts are given as well as other sources on 17th century servitude among Blacks in Virginia.  

1619	Arrival of "20 and odd" Africans in late August 1619, not aboard a Dutch ship as reported by John Rolfe, but an English warship, White Lion, sailing with a letter of marque issued to the English Captain Jope by the Protestant Dutch Prince Maurice, son of William of Orange. A letter of marque legally permitted the White Lion to sail as a privateer attacking any Spanish or Portuguese ships it encountered. The 20 and odd Africans were captives removed from the Portuguese slave ship, San Juan Bautista, following an encounter the ship had with the White Lion and her consort, the Treasurer, another English ship, while attempting to deliver its African prisoners to Mexico. Rolfe's reporting the White Lion as a Dutch warship was a clever ruse to transfer blame away from the English for piracy of the slave ship to the Dutch.
1630's	Indication by surviving wills, inventories, deeds and other documents that in some instances it was considered "customary practice to hold some Negroes in a form of life service." It should be noted that by examining these documents it was also found that some blacks were able to hold on to their status of being indentured servants, thus, eventually gaining their freedom.
1639	All persons except Negroes are to be with Arms and Ammunition.
1640	John Punch, a runaway indentured Servant, first documented slave for life.
1662	Slavery was recognized in the statutory law of the colony. Legislation was passed defining the status of mulatto children. Children would be considered the same status as the mother. If the child was born to a slave, the child would be considered a slave.
1667	Baptism does not bring freedom. Until the General Assembly outlawed it, baptism could be the grounds for a black slave to obtain his/her freedom. It was considered for a period of time that it was not proper for a Christian to enslave a fellow Christian.
1670	Blacks or Indians could no longer own white indentured servants.
1680	An act was passed preventing insurrections among slaves. Blacks could not congregate in large numbers for supposed funeral or feasts. Blacks must also obtain written authorization to leave a plantation at any given time. They could not remain at another plantation longer than 4 hours.
1691	First act prohibiting intermarriage. No Negro or Mulatto may be set free by any person unless the pay for the transportation out of the colony within six months or forfeit ten pounds of sterling so that the church wardens might have the Negro transported.
1692	Negroes must give up ownership of horses, cattle or hogs. Separate courts for the trial of slaves charged with a capital crime, thus depriving them of the right of a trial by jury.
1700's	Slaves composed half of Virginia's unfree labor force.
1705	Slave laws were codified."

Revolution - Rebellion, Who Will Win?

 

Bacon's Rebellion 1675-76, Early Success Leads Death and Failure

Virginia Colony in 1675, was in turmoil. Native American troubles on the frontier, dissatisfied farmers, restless indentured servants, freed Blacks and slaves, a worried Gentry Class and a seemingly dysfunctional Colonial Royal Governor led to the first armed revolt in Colonial North America. 

The main protagonists were 70-year-old Royal Governor Sir William Berkeley and his cousin by marriage, 28-year-old land grant owner Nathaniel Bacon Jr.  Governor Berkeley, wanting to avoid another bloody war like the Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610-1646), tried to appease friendly tribes and at the same time establish a defensive zone around the colony to protect against "bad Indians." Trade with the natives was strictly regulated and taxes raised to support the enhanced military protection.

Bacon, on the other hand wanted to attack the "Indians" with his own militia of unhappy frontier farmers and settlers. He did so after his foreman was killed in a raid. Unfortunately for all concerned he attacked an innocent, friendly tribe.  The situation continued to worsen. An angry Berkeley called on Bacon to give up his command and submit to his orders. An equally enraged Bacon gathered his forces of frontier farmers, indentured servants freed ex-slaves and even slaves and marched on the capital, Jamestown. Berkeley fled, after saving colonial documents, Bacon burned the capital, which lost him much needed support.

Soon after abandoning the ruined capital, Bacon suddenly died of "Bloody Flux and Lousey Disease" (Dysentery and Body Lice). The rebellion collapsed, 23 of its leaders were hanged, Governor Berkeley was recalled to England to explain the fiasco to the king and in 1699 the capital was moved from rebuilt Jamestown to Williamsburg. The first American revolt was a dismal failure for all concerned.


Glorious Revolution 1688, Success at No Cost

When the beloved British King Charles II died in 1685, without a legitimate child, his loathed brother, James II came to the throne. James was married to a Catholic, acted like a Catholic and introduced laws like the "Declarations of Indulgence," that eliminated punishments for "nonconformist" religious groups. The birth of James' son, Charles, who would be raised as a Catholic, threatened the supremacy of the Church of England and the vast majority of British Protestants. 

 

In response to James' rulership and faith choices, religious and government leaders invited William Duke of Orange (James' nephew and son-in-law) and his wife Mary to replace James as ruler of the British Empire. They accepted and landed in 1688, to the adoration of the crowds. James with little political support called on the army to keep him in power, the army joined William and Mary instead.  James fled to France, William became King William III, and Parliament passed a law preventing Catholics from taking the throne. Without a drop of blood being spilt, the Glorious Revolution replaced an unpopular king and changed British history forever. More direct British government involvement in American colonial political and military affairs was on the horizon.

As a side note, the term "Revolution" is usually used when the revolt succeeds while "Rebellion" normally denotes that those in revolt lost to the established government. The Glorious Revolution, American Revolution, French Revolution and Russian Revolution all were won by those in revolt. Bacon's Rebellion, Shays Rebellion, the Whiskey Rebellion and Confederacy Rebellion were all lost to the government of the time.

Dutch and Swedes, the Non English North American Colonies

 

New Netherlands, 1625-1674, (present New York and New Jersey) and New Sweden, 1638-1655, (Present Delaware) were two short lived North American colonial establishments.  New Sweden was taken first by the Dutch in 1655, while the Dutch colony was taken by force by the English in 1674.

New Netherlands was established for trade and territory power projection by the Dutch West Indies Company with the creation of Fort Nassau, a "Facrorij" (trading post). Established mostly on the Hudson River Valley, the major towns of New Netherlands were New Amsterdam (New York), Beverwijck (Albany), Schenectady and New Amstel (New Castle, Delaware). Their most powerful and unpopular leader was Governor Peter Stuyvesant.

Established for fur trade with the Native Americans, Nova Sweediae (New Sweden) was founded in 1638, by the Swedish South Company with the building of Fort Christina on the Delaware River. Under the leadership of Peter Minuet, the Swedish colony made friendly trade relations with the Susquehannock and Delaware tribes.

The tribes allowed further Swedish settlements at Fort Nya and Fort Nya Gothenborg. As trade communities, few actual settlers came to the colony. With a small European population of less than 600 the colony was easily overrun by the Dutch of New Netherlands during the 2nd Northern War (1655-60). From that point on New Sweden was now part of the New Netherlands Colony.

By 1670, the colonial population of New Netherlands was over 9000 Europeans or European descendants. As the English did not want an unfriendly power to have a colony dividing the English controlled territories of New England and Virginia/Maryland plans were laid to take the territory.

The diverse group of people of New Netherlands had little enthusiasm for fighting the English when the English fleet of James, Duke of York, threatened New Amsterdam in 1664. The city and colony of New Netherlands basically surrendered without a shot fired. With the end of the 2nd Anglo-Dutch War (1665-1667) the Dutch formally gave up any claim to New Netherlands-now known as New York colony

While both New Netherlands and New Sweden were non-English colonies for only a short period of time, their national traits had much longer effects upon the formation of the "Colonial Spirit" of the thirteen colonies that would form the basis of the United States.

Wiliam Penn's "Holy Experiment"

 

"Now I would have you well observe, That I am very sensible of the unkindness and injustices that has been so much exercised towards you by the people of these parts of the world...to make great advantages...sometimes by the shedding of blood...But I am not such a man...I have great love and regard for you, and I desire to win and gain friendship but a kind, just and peaceable life..."                    -William Penn letter to Native Americans

William Penn, a converted Quaker, wanted to found a colony based on religious freedom and the Quaker concepts of a good and fair society.  He was able to set his “Holy Experiment” into motion when King Charles II repaid a 16,000-pound debt by deeding William land that would be named Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods) after William’s popular father. Added to this was land from the Duke of York, future James II, that would become Delaware.

Penn invited people of all religions to join him in his new colony where freedom of religion would be the law. His “City of Brotherly Love,” Philadelphia, was his dream city of Quaker ideals. He also insisted that the Native Americans be treated as equals and that their land be purchased at fair prices which lead to sixty years of peaceful relations,

Even the City of Brotherly Love needed a night-watch for those who might try to take advantage of those who believed in peace.

As with other colonies established for religious freedom, the Quaker population was soon vastly outnumbered by other religious groups. But the concepts of equality and freedom of religion remained in the fabric of the new colonies of Pennsylvania (1681) and Delaware (originally founded by the Dutch in 1638), helping establish these concepts critical to the future United States. While Penn’s ideas prospered as did his colonies, he himself received no financial gain and died in poverty.  He saw this as a small price to pay for his “Holy Experiment.”

Portraits Through the Centuries

Early 17th Century

Early 18th Century

Early 19th Century

                                                                    Early 20th Century

                                                                    Early 21st Century

                                                                                 2020

Science, 18th Century Style

A microscope fit for the Royal Academy in the early 17th Century was as much a work of art as a functional piece of scientific equipment during the "Age of Enlightenment."

Even the case and its delicate tools, was a magnificent piece of craftmanship.
 

This set is at the Getty Museum in Los Angeles.

Gold-Gold-Gold Treasures of the Americas, Lure for the Europeans

Gold was a common artistic metal to the advanced civilizations of Pre-Columbian America.

Religious, purely decorative, status symbols or just works of art, master goldsmiths created them all.

The beauty of the works was lost on the vast majority of Europeans who saw only the monetary value of the gold items melted down into bullion, coins or jewelry more to European aesthetics.

The immense amount of gold (as well as silver and precious gems) available in the "New World" became a lure to countless European adventurers, explorers, conquistadors and the governments that encouraged them.

The untold wealth of the New World would lead to colonization, the destruction of the native civilizations and eventual Europeanization of the entire America's.

What little of the stunning gold art works that remain are but a small portion of the vast treasures that were destroyed and repurposed by the Europeans.

Little did the artisans of this golden beauty realize that their works of art would help to hasten the destruction of the world they knew.  The lure of gold-gold-gold would lead to many more mass movements of Europeans, but none would so change the world as did these wonders of the golden arts of the New World.

Pirate or Privateer

From the 16th to early 19th centuries "Privateers" were the mother countries legal pirates given "Letters of Marque" that allowed them to prey on the merchant shipping of "enemy" nations. Such commerce raiding was lucrative for both the privateers who provided their own ships and crews and for the navy that added to their commerce raiders at no expense to the naval budget.  

The object of a privateer was to capture their victims, man them with a "prize crew," and sell the ship and cargo at a friendly port. The government that granted the "Letters of Marque" most often received a percentage of this "prize money." Be they the "Seadogs" of England's Elizabeth I or American adventures of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, privateers were more often seen as legal pirates by the merchants they pounced upon on the high seas.

Peter the Great-the Tsar that Europeanized Russia

Tsar Peter I, the Great (1672-1725, Emperor/Tsar 1682-1725) truly deserved the title "Great" as he was both a powerful ruler that brought Russia into the modern World and was, at 6 feet 8 inches tall, also a giant for the time period.  He was a man of immense energy, ruthless, when need be, cruel when crossed and a lover of power and war. His vision to make Russia a World power led to a cultural change that was not popular with many Russian nobles and commoners alike.  After visiting Western European countries as a young man, he decided to modernize his military, his government and even build a new capital, appropriately named after himself-St. Petersburg.  It was a small matter that the land for his new capital belonged to Sweden at the time, war would settle that problem.  Dealing with his own people was a challenge in itself, he passed laws enforcing a variety of Western European ideas such as clothing, building a modern navy, reorganization the army and the like.  He even made a law that encouraged shaving by taxing beards. 

Through war Peter enlarged the Russian Empire, through politics he reorganized and streamlined the government, forced the Orthodox Church hierarchy to obey him and increased his already near total power over the state.  To further Russia's claims in Siberia and the Pacific Coast, he sent both settlers and explorers to the East.  The most famous of the latter was Captain Vitus Bering whose explorations gave Russia a claim to the lands bordering the sea that bears his name. 

By the end of his reign with his death in 1725, Tsar Peter I had forever changed the face of Russia and the political power system of European Nations.  Russia was now one of the major powers, although her importance would often be enhanced or diminished by the quality of the Tsars and Tsarinas who held the autocratic power.  Yet Peter had set the nation on the path to greatness, after him there would be no going back to the old ways.  Other powerful Russian leaders would build upon his foundations, Russia was now a major player on the World stage.

Wattle and Daub-Elizabethan Style

While not common, wattle and daub houses did not have to be whitewashed.

Wattle and daub were a fairly inexpensive way to build homes from the early Middle Ages to the Renaissance.

The walls between the large timbers of a structure were made of wattle (sticks woven in a loose pattern) and daub (a mixture of mud, straw and animal manure that was packed onto the wattle) then covered in plaster.

The upper story of the house to the right is a traditional style while those to the left have more wood detailing for decorative rather than structural reasons.

The Elizabethan Era was the high design point for wattle and daub buildings as by the end of her reign brick became the favored building material in England.

The sagging is a common aspect of many two or more-story wattle and daub structures.

 

All these houses are in Ludlow, UK whose castle (to the left of the photo) was a major structure on the border with Wales and retained its importance until the late 17th century.