War Cries on the Frontier

 

Nothing on the colonial frontier brought more fear to the hearts of the Europeans than the war cries of 

a Native American war party. Armed with both traditional and European weapons, decked out in warpaint, these Mohawk braves, were rightfully feared by their enemies. 

War parties specialized in swift hit and run raids and ambush attacks. Throughout the 18th century, only the foolish or the dead ignored the threat of a war party raid.

I painted these plastic pieces in the Fall of 2021.
 

Vive La France, Canada Qui Est

French Canada was guarded by limited number royal troops in the 17th and 18th centuries. With a small colonial population and massive amounts of land, the few Royal soldiers were often stretched thin as they tried to keep the kings North American Empire safe. In the end they were too few to match the British Colonial expansion wars which cumulated in the French and Indian War 1753-64 (Seven Years War in Europe). With the British victory, France lost Canada and their Louisiana territories and the long-suffering French regulars were withdrawn.  Until the next war - during the American Revolution.

From Declaration to Constitution

July 4, 1776  

Colonies declare their independence from Great Britain

October 17, 1777

General Burgoyne surrendered his army to the Americans under Arnold and Gates at Saratoga N.Y. As the greatest British defeat to this date, the victory guaranteed a French Alliance in the here-to-fore “English-Colonial Affair.”

November 1777

The Articles of Confederation establishes the first “official’ gov’t of the United States of America. The Articles stress the independence of the individual states and severely limits the powers of the central gov’t.

Winter 1777-78

Valley Forge, General’s Washington and von Steuben create the first “professional” American Army.

October 19, 1781

General Cornwallis surrenders his army to General Washington at Yorktown Virginia. Final straw that breaks the British will to continue the war. Peace negotiations begin in earnest.

1782-83

Peace of Paris, Great Britain grants the colonies their independence and all the territory from the East Coast to the Mississippi River, apart from Florida and the Gulf Coast which is given to Spain.

1785

Land Ordinance of 1785 (Township Act) established the township method of surveying and selling the lands of the Northwest Territories. A portion of each township is set aside to establish public schools.

September 1786-January 1787

Shays Rebellion demonstrated the need for a strong central gov’t. The inability/unwillingness of the states to assist one another in critical situations such as rebellions or natural disasters under the Articles of Confederation is undeniably demonstrated.

1787

Northwest Ordinance divides Northwestern territory into five smaller territories, established the format for accepting new states into the Union-60,000 settlers, a written state constitution and a representative/Republican form of gov’t. Slavery is also prohibited in the Northwest Territories.

May 25, 1787

Delegates from twelve states meet in Philadelphia to “revise the Articles of Confederation'' so as to provide unity, order and prosperity for the nation. This will become the Constitutional Convention.

May 30, 1787

The delegates decide to replace the weak “League of Friendship” of the Articles of Confederation with a strong, Federal, form of gov’t.

May-December 1787

Compromise! After many heated discussions the delegates create the United States Constitution, establishing three branches of gov’t, Legislative, Judicial and Executive. The Great Compromise established a two-house legislature: the Senate will be based on state equality with each having two senators, while the number of House seats will be based on the population of each state. The Slavery is defined and legalized in the Three-Fifths Compromise. Slave states will be allowed to count their slaves as Three-Fifths human for population numbers for the allocation of congressional representation.  This will give slave states a greater say in presidential elections through the Electoral College then the number of voters have in free states.

March-May 1788

Publication of the “Federalist Papers” to promote ratification of the United States Constitution. Written by John Jay, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, the papers are instrumental in swaying much public opinion to favor the ratification.

December 1787-July 1788

Ratification! Two-thirds (nine) of the states were required for passage of the US. Constitution. On December 7, 1787, Delaware became the first state to ratify while New York became the ninth on July 26, 1788.  The Bill of Rights was not initially part of the U.S Constitution, it was not added until December 15, 1791.

April 6, 1789

George Washington is unanimously chosen to become the first President of the United States, taking the oath of office on April 30.

Results of the American Revolution

 

Major Results of the American Revolution

Immediate Results:

The United States of America wins its independence. For the first time in history a colony has revolted and broken away from the Mother Country.

George Washington, gives up control of the army, refuses to be king or dictator and returns to the life of a gentleman farmer.

All states have constitutions creating elected representative governments.

Articles of Confederation creates a weak national government and strong state governments that are loosely united into one country.

60,000+ Loyalists abandon the United States to live in the British Empire. 

Apart from Florida and the Gulf Coast, the United States gains control of the lands from the Atlantic Coast (future state of Maine to Georgia) South of the Great Lake to the East bank of the Mississippi River. All this land has overlapping, confusing and often ridiculous land claims by virtually all the 13 States.

France, Great Britain, the United States and all 13 States are left with massive war debts.

Shays Rebellion demonstrates the weakness of the Articles of Confederation.

Long Term Effects:  

Northwest Ordinance and Township Acts, established requirements for new states, surveying the land into townships to be sold and establishment of public schools from the sale of parcels. 
 
US Constitution & Bill of Rights created forming a strong national Federal Government.
 
Separation of Church and State established in the 1st Amendment to the US Constitution.

Revolutionary Spirit spreads to Europe and other colonies in the America's. The French Revolution and the Spanish American colonial revolts are the first to succeed.

Increased "American Diversity" through waves of new immigrants.

Eventual elimination of slavery in the North and Northwestern States.

The two major losers of the war were first, the Native Americans who faced continued Western expansion with no real chance of stopping the loss of their land to American settlers. The second was the growing slave population who continued to face generations of lifetime servitude in the South.

Results of the French and Indian/Seven Years War

 

French and Indian War/Seven Years War

The Seven Years War, all nine years of it when counting the flash point conflict in North America called the French and Indian War, was truly the first of many devastating "World Wars." Fought on every known and settled continent, the war changed the lives of tens of millions. From the French deported from Canada by the British who became the Cajuns of New Orleans, to the conquest most of the vast population of India by the British East India Company, the repercussions of this war have lasted down to our World today.

Results of the French and Indian War/Seven Years War (aside from the one million+ dead):

1. France is forced to make humiliating concessions to the British-
Forced to give up all Claims to Canada, all lands East of the Mississippi and all trade claims to India. To the Spanish, France gave New Orleans and all land claims West of the Mississippi. The bitterness of these loses and hatred for the British will lead the French to search for ways to gain revenge, through war if possible.

2. Spain, in return for New Orleans, gave Florida to Great Britain.

3. Most European and Caribbean borders are returned to prewar claims.

4. The British become the undisputed number one World Power and largest empire.  The Royal Navy will remain the premier naval power for the next two centuries.

5. With the removal of the French threat, British-American colonials look forward to moving West to settle the former French territories. 

6. All combatant nations are saddled with massive war debts that needed to be paid for through higher taxes.
 
7. One formally unknown British Colonial officer earns valuable experience and a thrill for the sound of battle. His first defeat will be forgotten after his brave actions in the Battle of Braddock's Defeat. His newfound fame and military training will serve George Washington well in the next war.

The first Worldwide war is over, the stage is now set for the "Road to Revolution!"

Revolution - Rebellion, Who Will Win?

 

Bacon's Rebellion 1675-76, Early Success Leads Death and Failure

Virginia Colony in 1675, was in turmoil. Native American troubles on the frontier, dissatisfied farmers, restless indentured servants, freed Blacks and slaves, a worried Gentry Class and a seemingly dysfunctional Colonial Royal Governor led to the first armed revolt in Colonial North America. 

The main protagonists were 70-year-old Royal Governor Sir William Berkeley and his cousin by marriage, 28-year-old land grant owner Nathaniel Bacon Jr.  Governor Berkeley, wanting to avoid another bloody war like the Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610-1646), tried to appease friendly tribes and at the same time establish a defensive zone around the colony to protect against "bad Indians." Trade with the natives was strictly regulated and taxes raised to support the enhanced military protection.

Bacon, on the other hand wanted to attack the "Indians" with his own militia of unhappy frontier farmers and settlers. He did so after his foreman was killed in a raid. Unfortunately for all concerned he attacked an innocent, friendly tribe.  The situation continued to worsen. An angry Berkeley called on Bacon to give up his command and submit to his orders. An equally enraged Bacon gathered his forces of frontier farmers, indentured servants freed ex-slaves and even slaves and marched on the capital, Jamestown. Berkeley fled, after saving colonial documents, Bacon burned the capital, which lost him much needed support.

Soon after abandoning the ruined capital, Bacon suddenly died of "Bloody Flux and Lousey Disease" (Dysentery and Body Lice). The rebellion collapsed, 23 of its leaders were hanged, Governor Berkeley was recalled to England to explain the fiasco to the king and in 1699 the capital was moved from rebuilt Jamestown to Williamsburg. The first American revolt was a dismal failure for all concerned.


Glorious Revolution 1688, Success at No Cost

When the beloved British King Charles II died in 1685, without a legitimate child, his loathed brother, James II came to the throne. James was married to a Catholic, acted like a Catholic and introduced laws like the "Declarations of Indulgence," that eliminated punishments for "nonconformist" religious groups. The birth of James' son, Charles, who would be raised as a Catholic, threatened the supremacy of the Church of England and the vast majority of British Protestants. 

 

In response to James' rulership and faith choices, religious and government leaders invited William Duke of Orange (James' nephew and son-in-law) and his wife Mary to replace James as ruler of the British Empire. They accepted and landed in 1688, to the adoration of the crowds. James with little political support called on the army to keep him in power, the army joined William and Mary instead.  James fled to France, William became King William III, and Parliament passed a law preventing Catholics from taking the throne. Without a drop of blood being spilt, the Glorious Revolution replaced an unpopular king and changed British history forever. More direct British government involvement in American colonial political and military affairs was on the horizon.

As a side note, the term "Revolution" is usually used when the revolt succeeds while "Rebellion" normally denotes that those in revolt lost to the established government. The Glorious Revolution, American Revolution, French Revolution and Russian Revolution all were won by those in revolt. Bacon's Rebellion, Shays Rebellion, the Whiskey Rebellion and Confederacy Rebellion were all lost to the government of the time.

13 English Colonies of 1750 Major Products

Colony Name, Founding Date, Important Founder(s), Major Products

New England Colonies:  

Massachusetts 1620, William Bradford, John Winthrop-Fishing, Shipbuilding, Shipping, Naval Stores, Lumber, Food Crops, Rum, Livestock, Whaling.

New Hampshire 1623, John Mason, Ferdinando Gorges-Naval Stores-Timber, Fishing, Furs, Shipping, Whaling.

Connecticut 1636, Thomas Hooker-Shipping, Food Crops, Livestock, Whaling.

Rhode Island 1636, Roger Williams-Fishing, Shipbuilding, Iron Foundries, Food Crops, Rum-Snuff, Livestock, Rum, Whaling.

Middle Colonies:

New York 1625, Dutch Settlers,/Patroons James Duke of York-Fishing, Shipbuilding, Shipping, Food Crops, Rum-Beer-Glass, Livestock.

Delaware 1638, Swedish Settlers, Quakers-Shipping, Food Crops.

New Jersey 1664, John Berkeley, George Carteret-Shipping, Food Crops, Copper.

Pennsylvania 1681, William Penn-Shipbuilding, Food Crops, Paper, Iron, Rum.

Southern Colonies:

Virginia 1607, John Smith-Tobacco, Food Crops, Iron, Livestock.

Maryland 1632, Cecil Calvert-Tobacco, Food Crops, Snuff.

North Carolina 1663, Group of Eight Aristocrat Proprietors--Naval Stores, Tobacco, Furs.

South Carolina 1663, Group of Eight Aristocrat Proprietors-Rice, Indigo, Silk.

Georgia 1732, James Oglethorpe-Indigo, Rice, Naval Stores, Lumber.

All colonies had "Subsistence Farmers" who were able to produce enough food to live on with little or no excess to sell.

California Presidio's-Protecting a Colony on the Cheap

 

The Presidio at the colonial village of Santa Barbara and other strategic posts in far flung Alta California was Spain's attempt to hold this vast area with minimal troops. To protect Alta California, the Spanish divided the colony into four military districts, each centered upon a Presidio (fort) with a small garrison. Each Presidio was tasked with the protection of the missions in their military district.  

The first was El Presidio de San Diego, founded on July 16, 1769. San Diego was responsible for the mission San Diego, San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, and San Gabriel.  El Presidio de San Carlos de Monterey, founded on June 3, 1770, protected San Luis Obispo, San Miguel, San Antonio, Soledad San Carlos and San Juan Bautista. El Presidio de San Francisco founded December 17, 1776, was responsible for Santa Cruz, San Jose, Santa Clara, San Francisco, San Rafael and Solano. The last Spanish Presidio was El Presidio de Santa Barbara, established April 12, 1782, that guarded La Purisima, Santa Barbara, San Buenaventura, San Fernando, and Santa Ines. 

 The chapel was a key building at each Presidio as the religious needs of the troops and conversion of the Natives were seen as keys to holding the colony.

Highlander vs French and Native Americans in America

Colonel Hugh Montgomerie, 12th Earl of Eglinton, commander of the 77th Regiment of Foot (Montgomerie's Highlanders). Formed by Hugh in 1757, the 77th regiment was part of the British Army of North America during the French and Indian War (1754-1763). One of the first Highland regiments to serve in North America, the 77th participated in the capture of French Fort Duquesne, renamed Fort Pitt, in 1758. 

Colonel Montgomerie then led the 77th in the North Carolina Cherokee War of 1760-61, a sub-conflict of of the French and Indian War. After several battles, in which more than 5000 Cherokees were displaced, fifteen of their towns burned to the ground by the British as were 15,000+ acres of crops, the Cherokee were forced to sign a peace treaty favorable to the British.  In August 1763, the 77th took part in the Battle of Bushy Run that rescued Fort Pitt from a siege by several tribes of Native Americans.  

By the end of the French and Indian war, the 1200+ man regiment had lost over 100 men killed and 250 wounded. After four years of service in the Middle, Southern and Caribbean Colonies, the regiment was disbanded with honors. Some of the men would return to their homes in Scotland with stories of the wonders and dangers of Colonial America, enticing many Scots to immigrate to the Colonies. Many of those new immigrants would be joined by those of the regiment who also returned to this new land of endless opportunities.

Hugh Montgomerie, 12th Earl of Eglinton, Baron Ardrossan, Lord Lieutenant of Ayrshire, Knight of the Thistle, Peer of the Realm, Member of the House of Lords, Member of Parliament (b.1738 d.1819). Hugh was a successful politician and strong supporter of the British Crown. During his long life he witnessed the last battle between the Scots and English in the Jacobite Rebellion of 1754, the French and Indian War, the Seven Years War, the American Revolution, the creation of the United States of America, the French Revolution, the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, the War of 1812 and the restoration of the French monarchy.  His line still holds the title of Earl of Eglinton through his Great, great, great, great, great grandson Hugh Archibald William Montgomerie, 19th Earl of Eglinton.

Portraits Through the Centuries

Early 17th Century

Early 18th Century

Early 19th Century

                                                                    Early 20th Century

                                                                    Early 21st Century

                                                                                 2020

Old World Aristocratic Opulence

Nothing says wealth like gold plated furniture, door, walls, candelabra etc.

The highpoint of such aristocratic opulence was the era between the Renaissance and the American and French Revolutions.

All these items are currently at the Getty Museum in Los Angeles.
 

"Pinkie and The Blue Boy"

"Pinkie" the 1794, painting by English master Thomas Lawrence of 11-year-old Sarah Goodin Barret Moulton (22 March 1783b. - 23 April 1795d.) When first presented in the 1795 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition (ironically, the day after Sarah died) the work was proclaimed a masterpiece by the judges.

The captivating grace of young Sarah Goodin Barrett Moulton is as evident to today's views as it was more than 2 and a quarter centuries ago.

Since the 1920''s Pinkies constant companion has been the circa 1770, Thomas Gainsborough masterpiece "The Blue Boy." Thought to be Jonathan Buttle (1752b.–1805d.), but as is the case with many great works of art, the truth of who The Blue Boy really was will never be known. What is known is ever since the "Railroad Barron" Henry Huntington bought the painting, for the then record price of $728,800 (over $10,000,000 today), The Blue Boy and Pinkie have been as inseparable as the most beloved brother and sister.

Residing in the Huntington Library and Gardens in San Marino, California, Pinkie and The Blue Boy have and will continue to enthrall those who have the good fortune to visit them. 

Pirate or Privateer

From the 16th to early 19th centuries "Privateers" were the mother countries legal pirates given "Letters of Marque" that allowed them to prey on the merchant shipping of "enemy" nations. Such commerce raiding was lucrative for both the privateers who provided their own ships and crews and for the navy that added to their commerce raiders at no expense to the naval budget.  

The object of a privateer was to capture their victims, man them with a "prize crew," and sell the ship and cargo at a friendly port. The government that granted the "Letters of Marque" most often received a percentage of this "prize money." Be they the "Seadogs" of England's Elizabeth I or American adventures of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, privateers were more often seen as legal pirates by the merchants they pounced upon on the high seas.

One City Three National Rulers-New Orleans

The standards of the Kingdom of Spain, Kingdom of France and the 15 stared flag of the United States, three rulers of New Orleans in its first century of existence.

In 1718 (tradition says on May 7th), the French Mississippi Company founded La Nouvelle-Orleans as a French colony to control the mouth of the Mississippi River as well as an entry point to the greater Louisiana Territory. French adventurer Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville is credited for choosing the site that eventually became the shipping hub of the Gulf Coast. Its strategic importance was was not lost on the powers of the day and as a result of the disastrous Seven Years War, France was forced to cede New Orleans to the Kingdom of Spain in the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

By 1803, Spain and Napoleonic France were allies and the Spanish returned New Orleans to their former owner. But Napoleon was at war and in need of money, he found a ready buyer in the up-and-coming new power in North America-the United States. President Jefferson was quick to accept the price of fifteen million dollars for not only New Orleans but also the entire of the New France-Louisiana Territory (an area in the range of 828,000 square miles). For the price of around eighteen dollars a square mile, the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, would go down as one of the greatest land purchases of all time.

Peter the Great-the Tsar that Europeanized Russia

Tsar Peter I, the Great (1672-1725, Emperor/Tsar 1682-1725) truly deserved the title "Great" as he was both a powerful ruler that brought Russia into the modern World and was, at 6 feet 8 inches tall, also a giant for the time period.  He was a man of immense energy, ruthless, when need be, cruel when crossed and a lover of power and war. His vision to make Russia a World power led to a cultural change that was not popular with many Russian nobles and commoners alike.  After visiting Western European countries as a young man, he decided to modernize his military, his government and even build a new capital, appropriately named after himself-St. Petersburg.  It was a small matter that the land for his new capital belonged to Sweden at the time, war would settle that problem.  Dealing with his own people was a challenge in itself, he passed laws enforcing a variety of Western European ideas such as clothing, building a modern navy, reorganization the army and the like.  He even made a law that encouraged shaving by taxing beards. 

Through war Peter enlarged the Russian Empire, through politics he reorganized and streamlined the government, forced the Orthodox Church hierarchy to obey him and increased his already near total power over the state.  To further Russia's claims in Siberia and the Pacific Coast, he sent both settlers and explorers to the East.  The most famous of the latter was Captain Vitus Bering whose explorations gave Russia a claim to the lands bordering the sea that bears his name. 

By the end of his reign with his death in 1725, Tsar Peter I had forever changed the face of Russia and the political power system of European Nations.  Russia was now one of the major powers, although her importance would often be enhanced or diminished by the quality of the Tsars and Tsarinas who held the autocratic power.  Yet Peter had set the nation on the path to greatness, after him there would be no going back to the old ways.  Other powerful Russian leaders would build upon his foundations, Russia was now a major player on the World stage.

Napoleon's Queen of the Battlefield

Batteries (normally six cannon and two howitzers plus caissons and crews) of Light (a relative term as this piece weighs just under 2000 lbs.) field pieces like this 12 pdr Foot Artillery cannon were the Queens of the battlefield to a master of artillery like Napoleon.

Firing a 12 pd ball or the deadly grapeshot (a mass of smaller iron balls that in action made the cannon a giant shotgun), field artillery was used to deadly effect throughout the 17th to 19th centuries. 

Howitzers such as this 5.7-inch (muzzle diameter) example were used to lob shells in a high arc over intervening terrain, fortifications and friendly troops.  Howitzers were used in smaller numbers than field cannons but were no less deadly when place under the command of an expert such at Napoleon.

The Privateer Popular till the 19th Century

Privateers were privately owned ships that were equipped and crewed at private expense but were given official government license to attack, raid and harass the enemies of said government in time of war. Privateers were de-facto legal pirates that were supposed to be treated a legitimate combatant if captured. 
Privateers achieved their authority through the "Letter of Marque." The letter of Marque was a government commission and permission to a private citizen to build their own warships. The use of these warships was to gain "prizes" (captured enemy ships and their cargo) that would be sold in friendly ports.  The government received up to twenty-five percent of the profit gained by the privateer from these auctions.  This greatly added to the number of ships available to wage war upon an enemy for virtually no cost to the government.

The most famous privateer was Sir Francis Drake, sailing the Golden Hind, he became the first Englishman to sail around the globe (1577-79).  In his attacks upon Spanish shipping on that voyage he brought home a treasure reported to be worth more than the entire yearly expenditures of the English Government (the capture of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción alone netted more than 15 million dollars in today's money in gold, silver and jewels). His backers earned a 4700% return on the money they invested in his ships and crew for this epic voyage. He so angered the Spanish through his successful raids that they offered a 20,000-ducat reward for his capture (over 7 million dollars). It was never collected.

Merchant ships were large, slow targets for the smaller, faster privateers who preferred to capture rather than destroy these valuable targets.  The lure of easy pickings brought many a privateer to sea during major conflicts (more than 1200 Letters of Marque were issued by the Americans during the Revolution alone).

Privateers tried to avoid battle with warships as the latter were usually better armed and carried little cargo of value. But occasionally the warships caught up with the privateers as in this action between the American Chasseur vs HMS St. Lawrence in the War of 1812.  The American won, an unusual occurrence for privateers.

Privateers came in all sizes, brigs and sloops were the most common, but they could be small as this Confederate privateer during the American Civil War demonstrates.  The American Civil War was the last major action by privateers, the Industrial Revolution, improvements in Naval technology and communications reduced the need and increased the risk to the point that privateering was no longer profitable.  Future wars would see more deadly ships and subsurface vessels whose goal would be to destroy, not capture enemy commerce.  The age of legal piracy was over.

Triangular Trade Routes

Triangular Trade involved trade routes that moved in a triangle direction. One of the most popular was from the Southern Colonies (Molasses) to the North American Colonies (Rum) to Africa (Slaves).

Another popular route took cash crops (rice, indigo, cotton, sugar and tobacco) to Europe. Then manufactured goods to Africa and from Africa, slaves to the colonies.

There were many other routes and goods that traveled in triangular paths from the New World to the Old. All of the natural wealth of the colonies were turned into trade goods, fish, furs, whale oil, iron, timber, naval stores, and wheat were common goods carried. While not the great money makers as the cash crops were, these products were in abundance and therefore less expensive in the New World. The age-old adage of "buy low, sell high" was the guiding principle for these trade routes. The profits made could be huge and became the foundations of much of the new wealthy elite of the English colonies.
Double click on each map to see it in a larger text.