From Declaration to Constitution

July 4, 1776  

Colonies declare their independence from Great Britain

October 17, 1777

General Burgoyne surrendered his army to the Americans under Arnold and Gates at Saratoga N.Y. As the greatest British defeat to this date, the victory guaranteed a French Alliance in the here-to-fore “English-Colonial Affair.”

November 1777

The Articles of Confederation establishes the first “official’ gov’t of the United States of America. The Articles stress the independence of the individual states and severely limits the powers of the central gov’t.

Winter 1777-78

Valley Forge, General’s Washington and von Steuben create the first “professional” American Army.

October 19, 1781

General Cornwallis surrenders his army to General Washington at Yorktown Virginia. Final straw that breaks the British will to continue the war. Peace negotiations begin in earnest.

1782-83

Peace of Paris, Great Britain grants the colonies their independence and all the territory from the East Coast to the Mississippi River, apart from Florida and the Gulf Coast which is given to Spain.

1785

Land Ordinance of 1785 (Township Act) established the township method of surveying and selling the lands of the Northwest Territories. A portion of each township is set aside to establish public schools.

September 1786-January 1787

Shays Rebellion demonstrated the need for a strong central gov’t. The inability/unwillingness of the states to assist one another in critical situations such as rebellions or natural disasters under the Articles of Confederation is undeniably demonstrated.

1787

Northwest Ordinance divides Northwestern territory into five smaller territories, established the format for accepting new states into the Union-60,000 settlers, a written state constitution and a representative/Republican form of gov’t. Slavery is also prohibited in the Northwest Territories.

May 25, 1787

Delegates from twelve states meet in Philadelphia to “revise the Articles of Confederation'' so as to provide unity, order and prosperity for the nation. This will become the Constitutional Convention.

May 30, 1787

The delegates decide to replace the weak “League of Friendship” of the Articles of Confederation with a strong, Federal, form of gov’t.

May-December 1787

Compromise! After many heated discussions the delegates create the United States Constitution, establishing three branches of gov’t, Legislative, Judicial and Executive. The Great Compromise established a two-house legislature: the Senate will be based on state equality with each having two senators, while the number of House seats will be based on the population of each state. The Slavery is defined and legalized in the Three-Fifths Compromise. Slave states will be allowed to count their slaves as Three-Fifths human for population numbers for the allocation of congressional representation.  This will give slave states a greater say in presidential elections through the Electoral College then the number of voters have in free states.

March-May 1788

Publication of the “Federalist Papers” to promote ratification of the United States Constitution. Written by John Jay, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, the papers are instrumental in swaying much public opinion to favor the ratification.

December 1787-July 1788

Ratification! Two-thirds (nine) of the states were required for passage of the US. Constitution. On December 7, 1787, Delaware became the first state to ratify while New York became the ninth on July 26, 1788.  The Bill of Rights was not initially part of the U.S Constitution, it was not added until December 15, 1791.

April 6, 1789

George Washington is unanimously chosen to become the first President of the United States, taking the oath of office on April 30.

Revolution - Rebellion, Who Will Win?

 

Bacon's Rebellion 1675-76, Early Success Leads Death and Failure

Virginia Colony in 1675, was in turmoil. Native American troubles on the frontier, dissatisfied farmers, restless indentured servants, freed Blacks and slaves, a worried Gentry Class and a seemingly dysfunctional Colonial Royal Governor led to the first armed revolt in Colonial North America. 

The main protagonists were 70-year-old Royal Governor Sir William Berkeley and his cousin by marriage, 28-year-old land grant owner Nathaniel Bacon Jr.  Governor Berkeley, wanting to avoid another bloody war like the Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610-1646), tried to appease friendly tribes and at the same time establish a defensive zone around the colony to protect against "bad Indians." Trade with the natives was strictly regulated and taxes raised to support the enhanced military protection.

Bacon, on the other hand wanted to attack the "Indians" with his own militia of unhappy frontier farmers and settlers. He did so after his foreman was killed in a raid. Unfortunately for all concerned he attacked an innocent, friendly tribe.  The situation continued to worsen. An angry Berkeley called on Bacon to give up his command and submit to his orders. An equally enraged Bacon gathered his forces of frontier farmers, indentured servants freed ex-slaves and even slaves and marched on the capital, Jamestown. Berkeley fled, after saving colonial documents, Bacon burned the capital, which lost him much needed support.

Soon after abandoning the ruined capital, Bacon suddenly died of "Bloody Flux and Lousey Disease" (Dysentery and Body Lice). The rebellion collapsed, 23 of its leaders were hanged, Governor Berkeley was recalled to England to explain the fiasco to the king and in 1699 the capital was moved from rebuilt Jamestown to Williamsburg. The first American revolt was a dismal failure for all concerned.


Glorious Revolution 1688, Success at No Cost

When the beloved British King Charles II died in 1685, without a legitimate child, his loathed brother, James II came to the throne. James was married to a Catholic, acted like a Catholic and introduced laws like the "Declarations of Indulgence," that eliminated punishments for "nonconformist" religious groups. The birth of James' son, Charles, who would be raised as a Catholic, threatened the supremacy of the Church of England and the vast majority of British Protestants. 

 

In response to James' rulership and faith choices, religious and government leaders invited William Duke of Orange (James' nephew and son-in-law) and his wife Mary to replace James as ruler of the British Empire. They accepted and landed in 1688, to the adoration of the crowds. James with little political support called on the army to keep him in power, the army joined William and Mary instead.  James fled to France, William became King William III, and Parliament passed a law preventing Catholics from taking the throne. Without a drop of blood being spilt, the Glorious Revolution replaced an unpopular king and changed British history forever. More direct British government involvement in American colonial political and military affairs was on the horizon.

As a side note, the term "Revolution" is usually used when the revolt succeeds while "Rebellion" normally denotes that those in revolt lost to the established government. The Glorious Revolution, American Revolution, French Revolution and Russian Revolution all were won by those in revolt. Bacon's Rebellion, Shays Rebellion, the Whiskey Rebellion and Confederacy Rebellion were all lost to the government of the time.

Feudalism-Military Government on the Cheap

Feudalism was the dominant Social/Political system in Europe during the Middle Ages (circa 9th to 16 centuries but still in use in many countries well into the 19th century). In Feudalism the Lords of a kingdom were given property called fiefs (fiefs could be anything from a farm, village, forest etc. to whole towns) from the “King.” In exchange the fiefs the Lords would become vassals to the king and give him military service (eventually cash rents), honor and loyalty. The Lords would in turn divided their properties into smaller fiefs and give them to vassals (tenants) of their own. The process would be continued down to the lowest class of Lords, the knights, who were given enough property to afford their life as the warrior class of the kingdom. The common peasants (villeins or serfs) were required to live on their lord's land and give him homage, labor, and a share of the produce, nominally in exchange for military protection from the "lord." Without the expense of a single coin, through Feudalism the "King" had a ready made army of knights and men-at-arms that would give him military service in return for land.

A Lord by Every Name

Nobles and Lords often have multiple titles. Some signify territories or fiefs as in Duke of York or the Earl of Warwick. Others are earned titles such as a Knight of the Realm. While some may be simple honorary titles. Regardless, all are important to the recipient. Below is a rather extreme case of multiple titles, these belonged to Prince Philip, the husband of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom:

His Royal Highness The Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth, Baron Greenwich, Royal Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, Extra Knight of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, Grand Master and First and Principal Knight Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, Member of the Order of Merit, Companion of the Order of Australia, Additional Member of the Order of New Zealand, Extra Companion of the Queen's Service Order, Royal Chief of the Order of Logohu, Canadian Forces Decoration, Lord of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, Privy Councillor of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, Personal Aide-de-Camp to Her Majesty, Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom.

Civil Service-Qualification by Examination

One of the greatest concepts of Imperial China was that of the Civil Service Exam. Begun in a limited form in the Han Dynasty, it was formalized and improved by the Sui and fully implemented by the T'ang Dynasty.  Originally intended to show the education level of the job candidate, the concept evolved into the current form where workers should be qualified to do the job. 

The idea that a government employee should be qualified for the position that they held was in direct contrast to the traditional ideas of nepotism and favoritism where family and friends were given choice positions because of their "connections' rather than their ability to do the job. Simply put, Civil Service personnel have passed a test that shows they are qualified to complete the tasks of the government job they hold.

Machiavelli and "the Prince"

Niccolò Machiavelli 1469-1527,

In a time where most believed that "Good Moral" leaders were also "Good Political " leaders and ruled with the "Grace" of God, Machiavelli wrote a divergence view of the power of a leader and the State.  In his most famous work The Prince (Il Principe), he made the case that power, not the moral character, defines political action.  To be an effective leader, one must understand the proper use of power and its application to the control of and success of the State. Individuals of the State must be brought to obey this power thereby maintaining the success and security of the State and all its citizens.  In Machiavelli's eyes a leader that is respected (or even feared) for his power will be more successful than one who is admired for his "Goodness."

The Prince puts forth the belief that the goal of a leader should always be to “maintain his state” and to “achieve great things,” both of which require power and will increase the power of the ruler.  Many have interpreted his arguments as justification for the adage-"the ends justify the means" where upon rulers are allowed to do what they wish in the stated goal of protecting the State.  Others believe that Machiavelli was exposing the dangers and threats of single dictatorial rule.  What is clear is that many leaders have read and followed his teachings, to both the betterment and sufferings of their peoples and States.

(Other notable works by Machiavelli included Dell’Arte della Guerra [the Art of War], Ritracto delle cose della Magna [Portrait of the affairs of Germany] and Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio [Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy])

The Basic Medieval-Feudal Society

LORDS

The King-in theory owned the land of the kingdom.

Nobles (Dukes, Earls, Counts, Viscounts, Barons etc.) were given land (fiefs) as Vassals to the King, giving military service, loyalty and eventually taxes in return to the Monarch. This system of fief and vassal was in perpetuity (unless one broke the oaths of fealty, or the family died out) and passed through inheritance to the oldest male of the line.

Knights (lowest of the Lord Class) were given land (fiefs) by the Nobles and became their Vassals giving military service, loyalty and eventually rent to their Lord.

In all but the rarest of cases you were born into the Lord Class. Social mobility within the class was possible but difficult (and often dangerous-"Uneasy rests the head that wears the Crown").

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COMMONERS

Commoners originally had very limited social mobility, but as the Middle Ages progressed men of exceptional skill, and a good bit of luck, were able to improve their status and wealth within the commoner class.

Merchants-townsfolk-Guildsmen produced goods and services that enriched the kingdom and eventually provided a tax base for the government.

Freedmen tenant farmers rented the land and paid taxes.

Serfs were "owned" by the fief lands of a Lord and had extremely limited rights (virtual slaves except they were not the "property" of the Lord). They paid a portion of their crops as well as service to the lord.

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THE CHURCH

Was outside the normal social, political rankings of the Middle Ages.

In the early Middle Ages, the Church was one of the few systems that mobility and elevation in rank was based on skill vs heredity, as all positions were earned vs inherited. As the Western Clergy was not allowed to marry (although there were those individuals who failed to follow the "letter" of this rule) there was a constant need for new members to fill the positions from Monk to Pope as current members died, this is what allowed the unprecedented social movement in this organization in the Middle Ages.

The Pope was the elected head of the Church in Western Europe and often held immense power (Religious, Political and often Military).

Just like in the Lord Class, the Religious Orders had officials of rank that helped run the Church-Cardinals, Archbishops and Bishops were chosen for their positions-a rarity in the Middle Ages where positions of power were most often inherited or taken by force.

The greatest influence of the faith was through the countless small community churches manned by tens of thousands of priests that spread the religion and power of the Church.

Monks full filled a vital role in the early days of the Middle Ages as virtually the only repositories of book making and writing.  With the coming of educational centers of learning (later the first Universities) in the 9th and 10th centuries, which were initially established to teach reading and writing to the clergy, this task reverted to the lay community.

Social Classes of Ancient Egypt

Pharaoh-Chief Priest King

High Officials-Royal Family, Administrators, Nobles, Court Officials, Priests, Scribes

Middle Class-Merchants

Working Class-Artisans, craftsmen, entertainers,peasant workers

Servants-freemen and Slaves all who worked for the above classes

Social Classes of Shogun Era Nippon

LORDS-less than one percent of the population-owned 100 percent of the land

Emperor-one continuous dynasty with little real power

Shogun-Supreme General, Military Dictator of Japan (Seii Taishogun-great general who subdues eastern barbarians) true ruler in Nippon

Daimyos-Powerful Lords/Nobility, large landowners and provincial governors, had private armies of Samurai

Samurai-("those who serve") military vassals and warrior class, followed code of Bushido

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Ronin-master-less samurai, warriors for hire, thought of as bandits and mercenaries

-no longer members of the Lord Class but better than commoners

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COMMONERS-normally your occupation was the same as your parents, but some mobility was possible for those with special skills

Peasant Workers-majority of the people Skilled Artisans/Craftsmen-prized and admired for their skills

Merchants-despised for their use of money

Eta-the untouchables, did all the dirtiest jobs in the country


Under normal conditions you were a member of the class you were born into and not allowed to move into a better class.

The Republic of Rome

The full government form of the Roman Republic was very complex-here is a brief description of the key features of pre-Imperial Rome:

The Roman Republic's power was shared. Here are the main offices of the Republic:
Consul(x2) - head of state
Dictator - appointed for 6 month in time of crisis
Pontifex Maximus - head of religion
Censor - in charge of public morality
Praetor - law officer
Aedile - in charge of public works
Quaestor - treasurer

Tribunes-had the power to veto laws of the Senate, Tribunes were elected by the Plebeians


The assemblies also controlled aspects of Roman life. These are the various assemblies:
Senate - patrician assembly
Comitia Curiatia - dealt with Roman life and religion
Comitia Centuriata - military assembly
Concilium Plebuis - plebeian assembly
Comitia Tributa - Tribal assembly


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"The Roman Republic." The Roman Empire. Web. 11 May 2011. <http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/rep-index.html>.