New World-Old World Style Cities

With the discovery of the "New World," Europeans embarked on a path of exploration, conquest, settlement and exploitation of these new lands.  One of the major changes they brought to the New World was the European design of cities.  These designs were in direct conflict with the cities of the advanced cultures of the Inca and those of what would become Mexico (the Aztecs and their enemies).  It was only natural, for the time period, for the conquerors to assume that theirs being the "superior culture" their style of cities would therefore also be superior.  This ethnocentrism coupled with the deadly diseases brought from the Old World doomed the advanced native city cultures so much that by the end of the 16th century virtually all the cities in the New World were mirrors of the European but with a local flavor.

El Morro, the massive Spanish fortification protecting the harbor and town of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Oldest European fortifications in the territory of the USA.

Here are some of the more important of the early European cities of the New World:
San Juan, Puerto Rico, founded by the Spanish in 1509 to assist commerce and project military power into the Southeastern Caribbean.  Originally the island was called San Juan and the town was called Puerto Rico (Rich Port).
Havana de Cuba, founded by the Spanish in 1514.  The major seaport of the Spanish colonies in the New World, from 1566 to 1790, the annual Treasure Fleets set off for Spain from here.

Gold the life blood of the annual Treasure Fleets from Havana to Spain.  Along with silver, jewels, jewelry, and the other vast resources of the New World Spanish Empire made the seaport so critical to Spain.

La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (Rich Village of the True Cross), founded by the Spanish in 1519
Established by Cortez at the start of his conquest of Mexico, first city on the continent to have a city council.
Mexico City (former Tenochtitlan), founded by the Spanish in 1521.  After leveling one of the most beautiful cities in the World, Cortez and the Spanish built their new city in the image of those of the Old World. Was the most populous city in Pre-Columbian America and is now, with 19.6 million people, one the most populous urban areas in the World.

Mexico City in the 17th Century.

San (Saint today) Augustine, Florida, founded by the Spanish in 1565.  Built to solidify Spanish claims to the Southeast of North America and to protect the sea route of the yearly Treasure Fleet. Many bitter battle and raids by both the French and English lead to the construction of Castillo de San Marcos, the oldest stone fort in North America.

Replica of the Susan Constant which with the Discovery and Godspeed brought the first settlers to Jamestown in 1607.

Jamestown, Virginia, founded by the English in 1607.  The first successful English settlement in the USA, establishes an English presence that will grow into the thirteen colonies. "The colony built on smoke," they came looking for gold and silver but became rich on tobacco.

Map of Quebec circa 1640

Quebec City, Canada, founded by the French in 1608.  Established for the fur trade, quickly transformed into the center of French culture in Canada.  The key to "New France," for two centuries the country that ruled Quebec owned Canada.

Flag of New France incorporating the Royal Coat of Arms of the Bourbon family.

Santa Fe, New Mexico, founded by the Spanish in 1608.  Oldest territorial capital in the USA and only capital ever captured by the American Indians (1680-1692).

The Church of San Miguel, Santa Fe built circa 1610 and holds a claim to be the oldest church in the USA.

Plymouth Plantation, Massachusetts, founded by the English 1620.  Settled by the Pilgrims searching for religious freedom that after economic became a major cause for future colonial settlements. The settlement, through mistake or design, was built outside the area of Virginia territory of their contract. This allowed the colonist to make a new covenant-the Mayflower Compact creating a government in the New World based on equal rights to all signers. A strong precedent for future generations of Americans.  The signing of the Mayflower Compact is the root establishment of the rights of self-government in the New World.

Bas-relief of the signing of the Mayflower Compact.

New Amsterdam (New York 1664), New Netherlands (New York 1664), founded by the Dutch with a City Charter granted 1624.  An attempt by the Dutch to tap into the natural resources of North America, its conquest by the English changed the economic entire face of the British colonies. The English conquest led to renaming the city in honor of the king's brother, James the Duke of York (future King James II).

Early map of New Amsterdam.

Hidden Gold, Lost Cities, Endless Quest-El Dorado.

For centuries the lure of vast treasures, lost civilizations and cities of gold hidden in the wilds of the New World have fevered the minds of explorers and adventurers, congealing in the magic term-El Dorado.  El Dorado ("the gilded one"), untold riches hidden from the greedy clutches of the Europeans by Ancient civilizations long lost to the knowledge of the rest of the World. Thousands have searched and died in failed attempts to find El Dorado.   One time it was the "Seven Cities of Gold" in the Southwest, others involved hidden Inca cities in Peru or the fabulous wealth of Queen Calafia and her female warrior empire.  The Jungles of the Amazon basin (also thought to be the home the the ferocious female warriors) were a favorite destination for countless expeditions.

Yet, no matter how many searched or the lives lost, none have come back with the treasure of El Dorado.  The lure remains, the search continues the explorer travels on and on until

"...as his strength                            "Over the Mountains
Failed him at length,                         Of the Moon,
He met a pilgrim shadow-                Down the Valley of the Shadow,
"Shadow," said he,                          Ride, boldly ride,"
"Where can it be--                            The shade replied--
This land of Eldorado?"                   "If you seek for Eldorado!"

From Eldorado  by Edgar Allen Poe 1849

The Conquistador's-Warriors for Glory, God and Gold

From the 15th to 17 centuries a class of warriors roamed the globe searching for glory, wealth, the wish to spread the Catholic faith and new worlds to conquer for the Empires of Spain and Portugal-the Conquistadors. These warriors for glory, God and gold, believed they were spreading civilization and the True Faith to the barbarian pagans they conquered.

Armed with the latest weapons and armor yet developed in Europe and battle tested in both the Old and New Worlds, the conquistadors were a potent force in the capture of new colonies and destruction of numerous native cultures.

 Across three continents, the conquistadors helped to spread the Roman Catholic faith as their armies always contained missionaries as well as warriors. (Note the image of the Virgin and Child on the flag and the soldiers in prayer in the background.)

By the end of the 17th century the Spanish and Portuguese Empires were on every known inhabited continent.  Most of the New World was in the control of these two imperial titans, as was the vast natural wealth of these land.  Other European countries were quick to follow the example of the conquistadors, and soon most of the New World was claimed as colonies by the powers of the Old World.  The wealth they took would flow for centuries into the coffers of the Europeans further enriching their nations and encouraging yet more colonial expansion.

Results of the Crusades

As in all major historic events, the results of the Crusades were varied, complex and open to discussion as to their true effect upon World History. That being said there are some very important historic trends that can be seen as stemming from the Crusades:

 Kingdoms of Europe are the now the norm, the chance of a United Europe under the leadership of the Church or single powerful leader is gone. Much of the wealth taken from the looting of the cities of the Middle East and new trade will pay for the growth of the more powerful of these kingdoms.

 Distrust, Dislike and Outright Hatred between Christian and Muslims is now common due to the acts of bloody massacre and intolerance, accomplished “in God’s Name,” by the warriors and leaders of each group towards their "Enemies of the True Faith."

 The Europeans desire for lost and new knowledge and Eastern trade goods, especially spices, is multiplied throughout Europe by the Crusaders hundred-year+ presence in the Middle East terminus of the Silk and Spice Roads.  This will lead to ever more expeditions looking for faster, cheaper and more profitable trade routes to “India and China.”  These trade routes will require save havens, “Colonies,” for the Europeans as they travel from the West to the East.

 Europe is once again interested in the rest of the World, a concept that had lain dormant in the West since the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  More effort to understand the World, map the World and own their fair share of the World will consume the minds and energies of generations of European leaders, explorers, merchants and warriors.

 Europe will now step on to the road of World conquest, slow at first but increasing in effort and violence faster as the centuries roll on. This conquest will continue, eventually resulting in the massive colonial Empires of the 19th/20th centuries, causing political, social and economic problems that the World still faces in the 21^st century.

Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico

Aztec (Mexica)Emperor Moctezuma II, ruler of the empire when Cortez and his conquistadors arrived. His fatalistic view of history and religion influenced his decisions on how to deal with the Spanish Invaders. His original belief that the Spanish were of Divine origin was a critical mistake. His apprehension at angering the gods caused him to delay any decisive action until it was too late-a fatal error for the Aztec Empire.

Cortez was quick to exploit Aztec weaknesses, he encouraged the belief that he was Divine with "supernatural powers," and exploited the hatred among neighboring tribes that the Aztec's had created in their endless wars for human sacrifices to their gods. Here the Lady Dona Marina (La Malinche), the main interpreter for Cortez, advises him as he meets with local leaders who have joined him in the war against the Aztecs. Note the feathered headdress of leadership that Cortez has adopted and the Spanish soldier that is leading Indian warriors.



One of the greatest "supernatural powers" of the Spanish was gunpowder. Cannons like this one were totally unknown in the "New World" and seemed to be the voice of doom from the gods to the Aztecs. Muskets, crossbows, warhorses, wardogs, steel armor and weapons were all unknown before the Spanish arrived and completely out classed the Stone Age weapons and armor of wood and cloth of the Aztecs.

The outcome of the initial engagements between the Spanish and Indians were overwhelmingly in favor of the Spanish. Each victory seemed to prove the divine nature of Cortez and brought more and more Native American Allies to his support, from the tribe's hostile to the Aztecs.

The emperor allowed the Spanish to enter his capital city. When Cortez and Moctezuma II met in person it took very little time for the latter to realize the Spaniard was not Divine but an all to normal greedy human. Cortez then seized the emperor, making him a prisoner in his own palace.

Soon the people revolted against the Spanish, Moctezuma II was killed (by who is unclear to this day) and the Spanish had to fight their way out of the city. Unable to use their full strength while retreating along the causeways above the lake, the Spanish suffered their only defeat at the hands of the Aztecs.  So many fell, over 400 Spanish and thousands of their Indian allies, that the disaster became known as "La Noche Triste" (the Night of Sorrows).  Cortez saw this as a temporary setback, the riches of the capital and empire were too great to turn back now, revenge would be overwhelming and brutal.



Using modern European arms and armor and his Indian allies (eventually more than 50,000 Indian warriors fought as allies of the Spanish) Cortez defeated the Aztec Armies and fought his way back to Tenochtitlan.



The Aztec Capital was built upon lake Texcoco with three causeways connecting to the land. Fresh water was brought from the mountains by dual aqueducts, while food supplies were bought from the mainland by canoe or by human porters via the causeways. The lake was both the greatest defense and weakness of the capital, as it not only protected the city it also isolated it from food and clean water.

To subdue the city, Cortez destroyed the aqueducts, forcing the people of the capital to drink the polluted water from the lake. He then blockaded the city from food and reinforcements by using thirteen brigs (small sailing boats that could also use oars) armed with cannon, musketeers, and crossbowmen that he designed and built at the lake. As the people became weaker, Cortez launched his attacks by destroying every building, street by street, throughout the city.


Starvation, foul water, and the greatest killer-smallpox soon decimated the city's population. Tens of thousands died. The survivors fought on hoping for a miracle, but their gods had failed them, and no miracle came, only death and destruction.

The fighting in the streets of the capital was brutal hand to hand. In a futile final stand the last Aztec warriors massed at the Great Temple Pyramid and fought step by step up its side until the last priests and warriors died near the alter stones that symbolized their lost culture. With religious zeal the Spanish and their Allies tore the hated temple down stone by stone. The materials from this and the other once great Aztec buildings were used as land fill and for the construction of a new European style city-Mexico City.

Aztecs the Warrior Empire

The founding of the capital city of the Aztec's, Tenochtitlan, was based on a sign from the gods. Where an eagle was seen killing a rattlesnake on a cactus would be the site for the Aztecs to build their city.



The Aztec Empire was built by warfare. In Pre-Columbian times their army was never defeated. All warriors aspired to reach the special ranks of Eagle or Jaguar Warrior castes as they were the elites of the Aztec Army


The great temple of Tenochtitlan, dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli (war & sun god) and Tlaloc (rain god).

The Aztec was the largest empire in Central America, but not the only civilized culture with cities, armies and power. The Tlaxcala were especially strong foes the Aztecs were constantly fighting.












The Sun Calendar of the Aztecs was both a sacred calendar (Tonalpohualli) of 260 days and a yearly one (Xiuhpohualli) of 365 days. The lives of upwards of 25 million people of the Aztec Empire were ruled by the priest's interpretation of this calendar.



The pantheon of Aztec gods was very large (see links site). Every key aspect of life had a representative god. This is Tlaloc, "He Who Makes Things Sprout," the god of rain, lightning and thunder. All gods needed sacrifices, but only the most important needed human blood daily.














          Captain General Hernando Cortez, commander of the Spanish troops that landed in Mexico in 1519. An event that caused great upheaval and eventual destruction of the Aztec World.


La Malinche-Dona Marina, the native lover, advisor, and interpreter of Cortez. Her assistance was critical to the Spanish Conquest of Mexico.

European Renaissance Explorers-Redrawing the World one Trip at a Time

Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal 1394-1460. His vision of sending merchant ships around Africa to India in the 15th century would begin the Age of Discovery. It would also start the race for colonies outside of Europe that would result in the great European colonial empires of the 19th & 20th centuries.

Bartholomew Dias 1550-1600. This explore from Portugal was the first European to round the Cape Horn of Africa. From this point on it would only be a matter of time before a sea trade route to India would be established.

Route of Dias around Africa.

Vasco de Gama, circa 1460-1524. First European to actually reach India by sea. Portugal, being first, would establish a profitable trade route with their colony in India that would last for three and a half centuries.

Vasco de Gama's first route to India.

Christopher Columbus, 1451-1506. The Italian explorer working for Spain, whose massive mistake changed the history of the World. He thought he was in India but actually discovered the massive Western Continents-"the New World." A fact he would never admit.

Artist impression of the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus and the first European ship lost in the Caribbean Sea.

Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese by birth, but sailed for Spain, 1480-1521. Original leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Sir Francis Drake,1540-1596. Greatest English "Sea Dog" and first Englishman to circumnavigate the World.

The new and improved English "racing galleon." Faster and better armed than their Spanish contemporaries. An example of Queen Elizabeth Tudor and England's new ideas of quality vs quantity in the race to control the trade routes and growing European Worldwide empires.