Gods of Olympus-and Earth

Zeus, rule of the sky, Supreme Leader of the gods. Married to his sister Hera, with her he fathered Ares, Hephaestus, Hebe (goddess of youth), and Eileithyia (goddess of childbirth/children). With other women he also fathered Athena, Persephone, Artemis, Apollo, Hermes, Dionysus (some myths mention he was also the father of Aphrodite) and numerous demi-gods (Herakles being the most powerful and famous).

Hera, older sister and jealous wife of Zeus, goddess of marriage, family, hearth and home. Known to punish the many children of Zeus by other women, especially Herakles.

Ares god of war and battle lust. He enjoyed battle but was a wimp about personal pain. The queens of the Amazons, Eros, Romulus and Remus were his greatest children.

Athena patron of Athens, goddess of wisdom, crafts and warfare. She is the protectress of agriculture, created the olive tree and invented the plow for the benefit of the Greeks.

Apollo the sun god and patron of music and poetry. Patron of the Oracle of Delphi, the most famous and important of the centers of prophecy. When angered he could bring plague upon those who faced his wrath.

Artemis the virgin huntress, goddess of the hunt, wilderness, moon and childbirth. Sister to Apollo. She was of special importance to the Spartan's who would not go to war without favorable signs from her.

Aphrodite, the most beautiful of the god's, goddess of love, beauty and desire. Wife of Hephaestus but has her son Eros with Ares.

Dionysus, the forever youthful god of Wine, Parties, Joy,Theater and Peace. One of the most popular of the gods.

Hades, older brother of Zeus, ruler of the Underworld realm of the dead. Also known as the "Lord of Riches" as he was the god of the hidden wealth of the Earth from precious metals and jewels to the fertile soil itself. His "marriage" to Persephone is why the seasons change.

Hephaestus, the smith of the gods, god of fire, metalworking, stone masonry and the art of sculpture. He is often described as being crippled by his father Zeus after an argument, Hephaestus then made artificial leg supports that allowed him to walk but with a noticeable limp. Married to Aphrodite, who is always unfaithful to him.

Hermes, messenger of the gods, god of travelers, merchants and thieves. His most famous child was Pan the half-goat, half-man god of rustic music, shepherds and flocks.

Poseidon, older brother of Zeus, God of the Seas, Rivers, Earthquakes, Floods, Droughts and Horses. His most famous offspring were Triton the merman, Pegasus the winged horse and the demi-god hero Bellerophon.

Demeter, the goddess of agriculture, bread, grain, the harvest and the cycle of life and death. Mother of Persephone, who must live with Hades for six months each year. Demeter's saddness over the loss of her daughter for this time is the reason for Fall and Winter when plants die or go dormant.

Reformation-Counter Reformation

Reformation-Counter Reformation, the Christian Church at War with itself!

In 1517, Martin Luther wrote his Ninety-Five Theses, complaints on what was wrong with the Catholic faith and leadership. The opening salvo of the Reformation had been fired. Reformer protested against the Roman Catholic Faith and soon refereed in general by the title of Protestants.  From 1517, to the end of the thirty Years War in 1648, Europe would be wracked by religious bloodshed.

Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder-1533.   A monk in Germany, Luther (1483-1546) found fault with many aspects of the Catholic faith, especially its basic theology, political and economic policies.  His Ninety-Five Theses, started a rift between those that supported the Roman Catholic faith and those that protested against the Pope and his followers-the Protestant movement to Reform the Christian Faith and Church had begun. The followers of Luther eventually formed Lutheranism which today is the Majority religion in: Denmark (Official National Religion), Estonia, Finland (Official National Religion), Greenland, Iceland (Official National Religion), Latvia, Namibia, Northern Germany, Norway (Official National Religion), and Sweden.

John Calvin by René Boyvin in 1562. Born in France, Calvin (1509-1564) became a leading theologian in the Reform movement.  His concepts formed the basis of Calvinism (aka Reformed Theology or Faith) and the Presbyterianism movements. Famous adherents of the concepts of Calvinism included the Pilgrims, Puritans, Huguenots, Scottish Presbyterians and the "Reformed Churches."

John Knox (1514-1572) from Scotland, a former Catholic priest, he was a major leader of the Reformation and was instrumental in the formalization of much of concepts of Calvinism into Presbyterianism.

King Henry VIII (1491-1547)-Church of England (Anglican). Mainly for political reasons, King Henry VIII established the Church of England (COE) in 1534, with the monarch as the head of the church with all the powers of appointment and ownership of all church properties under the ruler's control. Years of unrest during the Tutor Dynasty eventually resulted in the COE becoming the DeFacto national religion of England.

Once the seriousness of the Reformation was acknowledged in Rome, the Catholic Church began its own Counter Reformation to stem the tide of gains the Protestants were making among the Christians of Europe. A grand meeting, the Council of Trent (met from 1545-1563), to address many of the challenges and reforms were instituted. Friendly monarchs were encouraged to make war upon Protestant rulers to win lands and people back by the sword if necessary, and the dreaded Inquisition was given full authority to "root out heretics" by whatever means were necessary.

 One of the Catholics strongest forces in the Counter Reformation were the members of the Society of Jesus-Jesuits, a new order of highly educated priests. Established by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) to win back protestants through missionaries with educated argument guile.  Education was seen as a key to winning back converts so many schools and Universities were established under Jesuit leadership (in 2012 there were 28 Jesuit colleges and universities and more than 50 secondary schools in the USA alone). By the end of the 17th century the Roman Catholics had retained control of the following: Austria, Belgium, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Monaco (Official National Religion), Poland, Portugal, Southern Germany and Spain.

The Protestant vs Catholic Religious wars were largely over by the 1700's, but the division between the two Cristian groups would continue to grow and influence World affairs for centuries to come.

Warfare in the Ancient Greek World

The armies of Ancient Greece were originally citizen forces where the individual was expected to equip himself with the majority of his supplies, weapons and armor.

The Hoplite armed with and eight-foot thrusting spear and curved short sword was the main fighting man of any Greek city state army.  His protective gear consisted of the best armor each man could personally afford.  The minimum would include a large round, wooden shield covered in bronze and a bronze helmet.  Those that could afford the best would also have a bronze (leather and stiffened linen were common for those with lesser funds) cuirass covering their chest and back and bronze greaves covering their lower legs.

The Hoplite Heavy Infantry Phalanx was the standard fighting formation.  Its strength was based on the coordinated defense of the overlapping shields and viscous killing power of the spears and swords.  Training, strength, stamina and bravery were key elements in the success of the phalanx. Battle were won or lost through the success of the phalanx.

The light infantry were armed with javelins or slings (occasionally with bows), a long knife or short sword was often carried for close combat. Their protection might include as much as a light curved shield and helmet (these were often called Peltast's) or as little as their normal clothing.  The job of the light infantry was to skirmish with the enemy and protect the flanks of the phalanx.

Unlike other armies of the time period, cavalry played a very limited role in Ancient Greek armies.  They were usual light cavalry with little or no armor and armed with javelins.  Their main role involved scouting and limited skirmish tactics.

The Galleon-work horse of the Spanish Empire

The Spanish Galleon became synonymous with trade and treasure in the 16th and 17th centuries. They were also the backbone warships of the major European navies of the day.

Cross section of a typical galleon design. Note the two-gun decks, supplies stored in the lowest hold and the ballast stones that were critical to the ship's stability and one of the keyways to identify sunken shipwrecks to this very day. The latter was due to the fact that type of ballast stones unique as they came from streams and rivers near the shipyard that produced the ships.

Galleons were massive ships for their time and very expensive, they were therefore embellished with the finest craftsmanship and artistic designs affordable. The tall "castle" in the Stern was designed as an elevated fighting platform for the soldiers in the crew and was a hallmark of the galleon design.

From 1566 to 1790 the yearly "Treasure Fleet" transported the income of Spain's American Colonial Empire to Spain.  Fleets of twenty or more galleons would assemble in Cuba and sail in a convoy through the dangerous Caribbean waters (storms, Hurricanes and pirate/Privateer raiders being the greatest threats) to Europe.  In today's money it was not unusual for each treasure galleon to carry between 500 million and a billion dollars' worth of silver, gold, gems and jewelry on board-a tempting prize for pirates and the navies of Spain's enemies.

One a year from 1565 to 1815, the Manila-Acapulco Galleon, "the Black Ship," carried the years taxes, trade good and passengers from the Spanish East Indies in Asia to New Spain. The cargo then was transported overland to coastal seaports to join the annual Treasure Fleet to Spain.


 In large scale sea battles, Galleons were the major warships of the age.  Most galleon were armed with forty to sixty cannon and hundreds of soldiers.  The main tactic was to fire the ships cannon while closing with the enemy.  When the ships were close enough to grapple (throw ropes with hooks to catch and pull the enemy ship towards the attacker) the soldiers would board the opponent and capture them through hand-to-hand combat. 

As with all military technologies, the Galleon was eventually superseded by newer designs and technological advances. By the 18th century Galleons were but memories of a more "romantic" age.

From Reconquista to the New World

From the first Muslim invasions of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century to the last decades of the15th century, the Christian rulers of the various kingdoms of this land fought to retake the land in the name of Christ. As the centuries progressed more and more of the lands were retaken through the "Reconquista."


By 1492, the monarchs Queen Isabella of Castile & Leon and King Ferdinand of Aragon (both descended from the king of Leon) had married, uniting their joint kingdoms into what would become Spain and completed the Reconquista by eliminating Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in Western Europe.

One of the benefits of the final actions of the Reconquista was the "liberation" of land, properties and much of the wealth of the Muslims.  A large portion of these riches now came into the hands of the King and Queen, just in time to fund a risky venture to discover a shorter trade route to India under the command of one Cristóbal Colón. 

In 1493, Cristóbal Colón returned to Spain claiming to have found a new route to Asia and the "Indies."  It would take several more voyages by multiple European Explorers to eventual establish that Colón had actually discovered a hitherto unknown land-"the New World." The centuries long Reconquista to retake the Iberian Peninsula for Christianity now lead to the opening of entire "new" continents to colonization and religious conversion.

Results of the 14th Century Black Death

 

In what has been the largest pandemic percentage killings of humans in the last 2000 years, 1/3 of the population of Europe,  around 25 million,  died in just under five years between 1347 and 1352 as a result of the dreaded Black Death-the Bubonic Plague.

Estimated population of Europe from 1000 to 1352:

                                                                    1000-38 million,
 1100-48 million,
1200 59-million,
1300-70 million,
1347-75 million
1352-50 million

But out of death and loss a new World emerged-the rebirth of Europe was at hand,
the Renaissance

The huge death toll left a massive shortage in the labor force.  Over night serfdom began to disappear and a large middle class, something unknown in Europe since the Roman Republic of 100 B.C.E., began to emerge.  The plague aided the development of the Renaissance as men with talent were able to rise above their station of birth due to the more fluid social order.  The World would never be the same!

Machiavelli and "the Prince"

Niccolò Machiavelli 1469-1527,

In a time where most believed that "Good Moral" leaders were also "Good Political " leaders and ruled with the "Grace" of God, Machiavelli wrote a divergence view of the power of a leader and the State.  In his most famous work The Prince (Il Principe), he made the case that power, not the moral character, defines political action.  To be an effective leader, one must understand the proper use of power and its application to the control of and success of the State. Individuals of the State must be brought to obey this power thereby maintaining the success and security of the State and all its citizens.  In Machiavelli's eyes a leader that is respected (or even feared) for his power will be more successful than one who is admired for his "Goodness."

The Prince puts forth the belief that the goal of a leader should always be to “maintain his state” and to “achieve great things,” both of which require power and will increase the power of the ruler.  Many have interpreted his arguments as justification for the adage-"the ends justify the means" where upon rulers are allowed to do what they wish in the stated goal of protecting the State.  Others believe that Machiavelli was exposing the dangers and threats of single dictatorial rule.  What is clear is that many leaders have read and followed his teachings, to both the betterment and sufferings of their peoples and States.

(Other notable works by Machiavelli included Dell’Arte della Guerra [the Art of War], Ritracto delle cose della Magna [Portrait of the affairs of Germany] and Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio [Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy])