Results of the 14th Century Black Death

 

In what has been the largest pandemic percentage killings of humans in the last 2000 years, 1/3 of the population of Europe,  around 25 million,  died in just under five years between 1347 and 1352 as a result of the dreaded Black Death-the Bubonic Plague.

Estimated population of Europe from 1000 to 1352:

                                                                    1000-38 million,
 1100-48 million,
1200 59-million,
1300-70 million,
1347-75 million
1352-50 million

But out of death and loss a new World emerged-the rebirth of Europe was at hand,
the Renaissance

The huge death toll left a massive shortage in the labor force.  Over night serfdom began to disappear and a large middle class, something unknown in Europe since the Roman Republic of 100 B.C.E., began to emerge.  The plague aided the development of the Renaissance as men with talent were able to rise above their station of birth due to the more fluid social order.  The World would never be the same!

Machiavelli and "the Prince"

Niccolò Machiavelli 1469-1527,

In a time where most believed that "Good Moral" leaders were also "Good Political " leaders and ruled with the "Grace" of God, Machiavelli wrote a divergence view of the power of a leader and the State.  In his most famous work The Prince (Il Principe), he made the case that power, not the moral character, defines political action.  To be an effective leader, one must understand the proper use of power and its application to the control of and success of the State. Individuals of the State must be brought to obey this power thereby maintaining the success and security of the State and all its citizens.  In Machiavelli's eyes a leader that is respected (or even feared) for his power will be more successful than one who is admired for his "Goodness."

The Prince puts forth the belief that the goal of a leader should always be to “maintain his state” and to “achieve great things,” both of which require power and will increase the power of the ruler.  Many have interpreted his arguments as justification for the adage-"the ends justify the means" where upon rulers are allowed to do what they wish in the stated goal of protecting the State.  Others believe that Machiavelli was exposing the dangers and threats of single dictatorial rule.  What is clear is that many leaders have read and followed his teachings, to both the betterment and sufferings of their peoples and States.

(Other notable works by Machiavelli included Dell’Arte della Guerra [the Art of War], Ritracto delle cose della Magna [Portrait of the affairs of Germany] and Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio [Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy])

Results of the Crusades

As in all major historic events, the results of the Crusades were varied, complex and open to discussion as to their true effect upon World History. That being said there are some very important historic trends that can be seen as stemming from the Crusades:

 Kingdoms of Europe are the now the norm, the chance of a United Europe under the leadership of the Church or single powerful leader is gone. Much of the wealth taken from the looting of the cities of the Middle East and new trade will pay for the growth of the more powerful of these kingdoms.

 Distrust, Dislike and Outright Hatred between Christian and Muslims is now common due to the acts of bloody massacre and intolerance, accomplished “in God’s Name,” by the warriors and leaders of each group towards their "Enemies of the True Faith."

 The Europeans desire for lost and new knowledge and Eastern trade goods, especially spices, is multiplied throughout Europe by the Crusaders hundred-year+ presence in the Middle East terminus of the Silk and Spice Roads.  This will lead to ever more expeditions looking for faster, cheaper and more profitable trade routes to “India and China.”  These trade routes will require save havens, “Colonies,” for the Europeans as they travel from the West to the East.

 Europe is once again interested in the rest of the World, a concept that had lain dormant in the West since the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  More effort to understand the World, map the World and own their fair share of the World will consume the minds and energies of generations of European leaders, explorers, merchants and warriors.

 Europe will now step on to the road of World conquest, slow at first but increasing in effort and violence faster as the centuries roll on. This conquest will continue, eventually resulting in the massive colonial Empires of the 19th/20th centuries, causing political, social and economic problems that the World still faces in the 21^st century.

Culture of the Mexica-Aztecs

Lake Texcoco was the home of the capital city of the Aztecs-Tenochtitlan. Built on a lake with canals for streets, the Spanish called this beautiful city the "Venice of the Americas."

The Aztec dike protecting Tenochtitlan from floods is visible on the lower half of this Spanish map of the city.


















As with all cultures, food was a daily necessity. Many of the foods the Aztecs ate have become common place in our world today, corn (maize), chili, tamales, tortillas and salsa were all introduced to the Europeans through contact with the Aztec Empire.

A favorite drink of the Aztec elite was chocolate.
This scene is from the Nuttall Codex showing where a cup of foaming chocolate is exchanged at a marriage. The Aztec version of drinking chocolate was not sweet, it was spiced with hot peppers. After the conquest, the Spanish were the first to add sugar to the drink.

Aztec weapons were made of stone and wood. The Aztec Maquahuitl warclub/sword was a fearsome weapon used obsidian stone blades. The blades were razor sharp but virtually useless against the steel armor and weapons of the Spanish.

Education was mandatory for all Aztec children; great store was put into the concept that knowledge strengthened the society.











Ullamaliztli-The main Ball Game of the Aztecs. On important religious occasions the losing team was often sacrificed to the gods.

The full Ullamaliztli ball court with the hoops in opposite walls. Similar to soccer, the ball could not be touched with the hands.  The object was to have the ball go through the small stone hoop at the center of either wall. 

Human sacrifice was seen as necessary to feed the gods. The Aztecs believed that without the most precious thing on earth, human life, the gods would die and the World would end. The numbers of lives given to the gods is unknown, some sources say hundreds a year, some say thousands and others estimate tens of thousands per year. Nothing convinced the Spanish that the Aztecs were barbarian more than this aspect of the culture of the Mexica.

Jaguar brazier used to burn the hearts of sacrificial victims so to speed their way to the gods.

Temple complex of Tenochtitlan.

This pair of Aztec warrior effigy incense burners were found at the entrance of a tomb.

Aztec warriors were proud, brave men who wore elaborate colorful costumes and jewelry into battle.  The more important the warrior the fancier the outfit he wore.

Surrender of Cuauhtemoc, the last Aztec Emperor, to Cortez (note Dona Marina at the side of Cortez-her revenge is complete). In 1525 the Spanish executed Cuauhtemoc officially ending the Aztec Empire.

Cathedral

Cathedrals are huge Church's dedicated to the glory of God. They are also hold the official throne (seat) of a bishop, Archbishop, Cardinal or the Pope. Many of the World's greatest Cathedrals were constructed during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Often taking up to a century to build, Cathedrals were a massive undertaking that when completed became both a religious and economic center for their community.

Weapons and Armor of the Era of Knights

A selection of common weapons of the well armed knight of the 13th century. From left to right we have a quiver of crossbow bolts, a dagger, long sword, quiver of longbow arrows, handaxe, warhammer and a small shield called a buckler.

A Long hunting knife rests next to the plate and chainmail armor of a knight. The helmet is a two piece design the gauntlets (gloves) are plate top with chainmail palms. The gorget is a small plate piece that covers the throat area under the chin and rests on the chainmail coat.

The Crusades-Bloody War in God's Name

From 1095-1291 (more or less depending on who's history you believe) the Middle East from Greece to Egypt was subject to some of the most brutal and bloody wars of the Middle Ages-the Crusades. These were to be "Holy Wars" as well as wars for the traditional goals of land, power and wealth.

After the conquest of the "Holy Lands" by the forces of Islam from the Eastern Roman Empire (aka Byzantine Empire), the Emperors in Constantinople tried to arrange a situation where they could regain these valuable territories. In the late 1090's Emperor Alexios I, in desperation, appealed to Pope Urban II in Rome for Western assistance in the recapture of these lands. Evidently Emperor Alexois I thought the warriors the Pope would send would be under the emperor's control and would return the land to the empire-nothing could be further from the truth.

Pope Urban II saw the emperor's letter as a rallying cry for all good Christian warriors to turn from warring among themselves and expend their energies in recapturing the Holy Land for the "true" religion, as well as for the greater glory of God, Pope Urban II and the Roman Catholic (rather than the Greek Orthodox Faith of the Byzantine Empire) Faith.  The knights and other "Crusaders" would wear a cross to show their devotion, would be given forgiveness for any sins they had committed, be guaranteed a place in Heaven, and get to keep any loot gained in the war.

So the first Crusades were launched.  Huge numbers (some sources say hundreds of thousands) of knights, retainers, men-at arms, camp followers, peasants, women and even children rallied to the call and marched on the Holy Land.  Tens of thousands died on the various marches, many were robbed and those that could not protect themselves were even sold into slavery.  Those that made it to battle saw everyone they met as a potential enemy, even other Christians who they often killed.  Fighting was bloody and brutal with massacre's common, as so often happens when killing in "God's Name."

In 1099, the Crusaders breached the walls of Jerusalem, and massacred everyone in the city they could find-Muslims, Jews and Christians, it made no difference to these warriors when their blood was up.

Rather than give up their newly conquered territories to the Byzantine Empire, the Crusaders set up a weak collection of Feudal states that could not and would not, support each other in time of need.

Ruled through arrogance and greed the Crusader states were in constant conflict with their Muslim neighbors and each other.

The results were predictable, in less than 100 years, the forces of Islam had taken back most of the lands the early Crusaders had captured.  So, the next major Crusade, usually known as the Third Crusade, was launched to re-recapture the Holy Lands. Three powerful leaders answered the call-Phillip II of France, Fredrick I "Barbarossa" of the German "Holy Roman Empire" and Richard I of England.

Richard I was a true warrior king and was given the title "Couer de Leon" (Lion-Hearted) for his courage in battle. He was an enthusiastic participant in the Third Crusade, being instrumental in the capture (and massacre of the 5000-man garrison) of Acre, while Phillip II, blaming illness soon returned to France and Fredrick I drowned crossing the Saleph River in Turkey.  For two years Richard I struggled to regain Jerusalem, but he was fought to a draw by the Great Saladin, Sultan of Egypt.

Saladin was a powerful warrior, firm in his religious belief as well as a man of honor and reason.  When it became obvious that neither he nor Richard would be totally victorious the two leaders formed a truce that produced a treaty ending the conflict, and allowed Christians free access, as pilgrims to the Holy Lands. Proclaiming a victory of sorts, Richard I returned to Europe and his renewed conflict with Phillip II over the lands of France. The Third Crusade was over.  More Crusades would follow, each less and less successful until by the end of the 13th century control of the Holy Lands was where it had been before the wars began, in the hands of the forces of Islam. Here they would remain until the First World War when the British would take the land from the dying Ottoman Empire. 

While a failure in their religious goal of regaining permanent Christian control of the Holy Lands, the Crusades were critical in future developments of European and World History. The money made in renewed trade, looted treasures from the Eastern Cities (including Constantinople which was brutally sacked by Western Europeans in 1204 during the "4th Crusade" which was anything but a Holy War) enriched the coffers of the "Kingdoms, City States, Nobles and Merchants" of the West. This wealth and rediscovered knowledge from the Byzantines and Muslims would hasten the end of the Middle Ages and the coming of the rebirth of science and arts in Europe-the Renaissance.

Three great warrior "Religious" orders of knights and men-at-arms were formed, the Knights Templar, the Teutonic Knights and the Hospitallers, to protect Pilgrims, expand the faith and tax to support themselves. Each would have important effects on the growth in power, influence and wealth of Western Europe.

The movement of troops, merchants and pilgrims in the Crusades reawaken an interest in the World by Western Europeans that had lied dormant since the fall of the Western Rome Empire. Europe was now intrigued with the rest of the World, its lands, its trade, its riches and its conquest.

The riches of the Silk Road opened up an insatiable appetite in Europe for the goods of the East.  As it became more and more expensive to purchase these from the Islamic and Ottoman controlled trade cities, new trade routes were researched through discoveries of unknown lands.  First by the Portuguese going South to round Africa to find a profitable route to "India." And then by a little-known Italian who decided to sail West in search of the "Riches of the East" in 1492, and the World changed forever.