Conquest of the Inca

Atahualpa was the13th and last fully independent Inca Emperor.  His total rule began after defeated his brother Huáscar in a civil war completed just as Pizarro entered the empire.

Francisco Pizarro was a conquistador in his fifties who decided on one last throw of the dice to find and conquer new lands for God, Glory and Gold. He had three great advantages over the Incan Empire- a "modern" military with the latest weapons (warhorses, war dogs, crossbows, muskets, cannons, steel weapons, steel & iron armor) and tactics, European diseases (smallpox being the deadliest) that had recently devastated the Empire and the Incan Civil War that had further disrupted the Incan government and military.

With a force of less than 200 conquistadors (at least sixty of which were cavalry) and one cannon, Pizarro began the hazardous march into the land of the Inca. 

Destruction of Atahualpa's guards and his capture by the Spanish conquistadors of Pizarro.

After luring Atahualpa and a large part of his nobles into an ambush, the emperor was captured and thousands of his men butchered.  Pizarro then demanded a massive ransom for the Inca. The ransom of 22,000 lbs. of gold and 44,000 lbs. of silver did not save the life of Atahualpa, for political reasons he was murdered shortly after the ransom was paid. The massive payment did make the conquistadors filthy rich. The value in today's money paid to each of Pizarro's cavalrymen for the capture of the emperor was over 1.5 million dollars, each infantryman received around a million dollars' worth of gold and silver. Pizarro's share was around 100 million and the "King Fifth" (the amount of all New World income paid directly to the king of Spain) was close to 1/4 billion dollars. Not bad for one day's fighting. The capture and subsequent murder of the Inca Emperor Atahualpa put Pizarro in virtual control of the empire.

While the people of the Inca would bravely, yet futilely attempt to resist the Spanish for the next thirty years, their empire was for all intents and purposes conquered in that one fateful battle. A battle where a handful of Spaniards changed the history of the South America.

Loading Spanish galleons with the kings fifth of the initial Inca treasure taken by Pizarro and his conquistadors. 

Pizarro would rule his new conquests for less than ten years before his greed and mismanagement brought his own destruction, not at the hands of the Incas he had conquered but by that of his own comrades for Pizarro was murdered by his own captains and officers that he cheated and mistreated. His greed led to his death after he had succeeded in one of the greatest conquests in the "Age of Colonialism."

Inca

Inca was not the name of the people, rather "Inka" was the title of the ruler.  The Spanish mistakenly called the people this title.  The people of the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, which meant "four parts together," as the empire was divided into four major administrative centers.
Inca gold representation of the Sun god.  As with the Aztec's, gold was so plentiful in the Inca Empire it had little value except to make into pieces of art, both religious and for personal use.
Inca silver ancestor gods.

Inca gold cup with the Sun god Inti. The vast treasure in silver and gold art works of the Inca drew the avarice attentions of the Spanish Conquistadors.

The "Lost City" of Macu Picu is an example of the sophisticated engineering feats of the people of the Inca Empire.

The quality of their stone construction techniques was so great that these buildings have withstood more than 500 years of the ravages of nature, including numerous earthquakes.

One of the greatest accomplishments of the Incan engineers was the massive road network of over 6000 miles that tied the empire together.

One of the best sources of our knowledge of the Inca comes from their burial sites.  Those of the rich and powerful have large stores of items that tell much about their culture and technologies.

Inca Fortress of Sayhuman at Cusco is another example of the precise stonework that was a hallmark of the engineering skills of the people of the Inca.

The massive size of the stones (many weigh over twenty tons) is readily noticeable in this picture.

Lama, the largest pack animal in Pre-Columbian America. It is one of the wonders of these impressive people that their massive stone engineering works were completed without assistance of any large draft animals. Note the terraced fields in the background that date to the time of the Inca Empire. The use of terraced farmland greatly improved the available food for the Inca Nation.

Timeline of Inca Culture. 

Major Results of the Conquest of Mexico

The century+ old Aztec Empire was completely destroyed in less than two years by the Spanish under Cortez.

The Aztec Empire was replaced by the new Spanish Empire. Mexico became New Spain and much of the rest of the Americas came under Spanish rule. Mexico would not gain its independence until the 1820's and the last Spanish colonies in the New World (Cuba and Porto Rico) would not be lost until 1898.

The beautiful works of art that Aztecs made of gold became a lure to the conquistadors who lusted for wealth.

For more than two centuries, the Spanish would take tons of gold from their new colonies. This wealth would pay for wars, palaces and all forms of pleasures, enriching the coffers of the Europeans and funding more colonial conquests.

The great engineering works of the Aztecs and the beautiful city of Tenochtitlan were smashed and replaced by European structures. The ruins of the Temple Mayor, once almost 200 feet high, stand mute testimony to the destruction of the Aztec culture. The religion of blood sacrifice and multiple gods died as had so many of its victims-seeped in blood.

Catholic priests and missionaries converted the peoples of the new Spanish Empire. The Roman Catholic religion replaced the gods of old. War, slavery, maltreatment and most deadly of all-diseases of the "Old World" for which the peoples of the Western Hemisphere had no immunities, decimated the populations of the new colonies. With the loss of 90% of the work force new sources of labor would be needed. Slaves from Africa were seen as the best choice for much needed labor in the "New World." Africans were inexpensive and coming from tropical climates were thought to be less susceptible to the fevers and diseases that were deadly to the Europeans (Yellow Fever being the most feared). For the next three centuries, tens of millions of slaves would be taken to the Americas as more and more colonies were established by the Europeans. The conquest of the Aztecs established a pattern to follow for the European nations greedy for wealth, new lands and prestige. "Modern" European weapons, and the organization of powerful colonial powers would set out to conquer the rest of the known and unknown World. For three centuries the European empires would grow, numerous wars would be fought (culminating in the greatest war in history, World War Two), countless millions would die, the World and human history would be changed forever.

Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico

Aztec (Mexica)Emperor Moctezuma II, ruler of the empire when Cortez and his conquistadors arrived. His fatalistic view of history and religion influenced his decisions on how to deal with the Spanish Invaders. His original belief that the Spanish were of Divine origin was a critical mistake. His apprehension at angering the gods caused him to delay any decisive action until it was too late-a fatal error for the Aztec Empire.

Cortez was quick to exploit Aztec weaknesses, he encouraged the belief that he was Divine with "supernatural powers," and exploited the hatred among neighboring tribes that the Aztec's had created in their endless wars for human sacrifices to their gods. Here the Lady Dona Marina (La Malinche), the main interpreter for Cortez, advises him as he meets with local leaders who have joined him in the war against the Aztecs. Note the feathered headdress of leadership that Cortez has adopted and the Spanish soldier that is leading Indian warriors.



One of the greatest "supernatural powers" of the Spanish was gunpowder. Cannons like this one were totally unknown in the "New World" and seemed to be the voice of doom from the gods to the Aztecs. Muskets, crossbows, warhorses, wardogs, steel armor and weapons were all unknown before the Spanish arrived and completely out classed the Stone Age weapons and armor of wood and cloth of the Aztecs.

The outcome of the initial engagements between the Spanish and Indians were overwhelmingly in favor of the Spanish. Each victory seemed to prove the divine nature of Cortez and brought more and more Native American Allies to his support, from the tribe's hostile to the Aztecs.

The emperor allowed the Spanish to enter his capital city. When Cortez and Moctezuma II met in person it took very little time for the latter to realize the Spaniard was not Divine but an all to normal greedy human. Cortez then seized the emperor, making him a prisoner in his own palace.

Soon the people revolted against the Spanish, Moctezuma II was killed (by who is unclear to this day) and the Spanish had to fight their way out of the city. Unable to use their full strength while retreating along the causeways above the lake, the Spanish suffered their only defeat at the hands of the Aztecs.  So many fell, over 400 Spanish and thousands of their Indian allies, that the disaster became known as "La Noche Triste" (the Night of Sorrows).  Cortez saw this as a temporary setback, the riches of the capital and empire were too great to turn back now, revenge would be overwhelming and brutal.



Using modern European arms and armor and his Indian allies (eventually more than 50,000 Indian warriors fought as allies of the Spanish) Cortez defeated the Aztec Armies and fought his way back to Tenochtitlan.



The Aztec Capital was built upon lake Texcoco with three causeways connecting to the land. Fresh water was brought from the mountains by dual aqueducts, while food supplies were bought from the mainland by canoe or by human porters via the causeways. The lake was both the greatest defense and weakness of the capital, as it not only protected the city it also isolated it from food and clean water.

To subdue the city, Cortez destroyed the aqueducts, forcing the people of the capital to drink the polluted water from the lake. He then blockaded the city from food and reinforcements by using thirteen brigs (small sailing boats that could also use oars) armed with cannon, musketeers, and crossbowmen that he designed and built at the lake. As the people became weaker, Cortez launched his attacks by destroying every building, street by street, throughout the city.


Starvation, foul water, and the greatest killer-smallpox soon decimated the city's population. Tens of thousands died. The survivors fought on hoping for a miracle, but their gods had failed them, and no miracle came, only death and destruction.

The fighting in the streets of the capital was brutal hand to hand. In a futile final stand the last Aztec warriors massed at the Great Temple Pyramid and fought step by step up its side until the last priests and warriors died near the alter stones that symbolized their lost culture. With religious zeal the Spanish and their Allies tore the hated temple down stone by stone. The materials from this and the other once great Aztec buildings were used as land fill and for the construction of a new European style city-Mexico City.

Aztecs the Warrior Empire

The founding of the capital city of the Aztec's, Tenochtitlan, was based on a sign from the gods. Where an eagle was seen killing a rattlesnake on a cactus would be the site for the Aztecs to build their city.



The Aztec Empire was built by warfare. In Pre-Columbian times their army was never defeated. All warriors aspired to reach the special ranks of Eagle or Jaguar Warrior castes as they were the elites of the Aztec Army


The great temple of Tenochtitlan, dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli (war & sun god) and Tlaloc (rain god).

The Aztec was the largest empire in Central America, but not the only civilized culture with cities, armies and power. The Tlaxcala were especially strong foes the Aztecs were constantly fighting.












The Sun Calendar of the Aztecs was both a sacred calendar (Tonalpohualli) of 260 days and a yearly one (Xiuhpohualli) of 365 days. The lives of upwards of 25 million people of the Aztec Empire were ruled by the priest's interpretation of this calendar.



The pantheon of Aztec gods was very large (see links site). Every key aspect of life had a representative god. This is Tlaloc, "He Who Makes Things Sprout," the god of rain, lightning and thunder. All gods needed sacrifices, but only the most important needed human blood daily.














          Captain General Hernando Cortez, commander of the Spanish troops that landed in Mexico in 1519. An event that caused great upheaval and eventual destruction of the Aztec World.


La Malinche-Dona Marina, the native lover, advisor, and interpreter of Cortez. Her assistance was critical to the Spanish Conquest of Mexico.

European Renaissance Explorers-Redrawing the World one Trip at a Time

Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal 1394-1460. His vision of sending merchant ships around Africa to India in the 15th century would begin the Age of Discovery. It would also start the race for colonies outside of Europe that would result in the great European colonial empires of the 19th & 20th centuries.

Bartholomew Dias 1550-1600. This explore from Portugal was the first European to round the Cape Horn of Africa. From this point on it would only be a matter of time before a sea trade route to India would be established.

Route of Dias around Africa.

Vasco de Gama, circa 1460-1524. First European to actually reach India by sea. Portugal, being first, would establish a profitable trade route with their colony in India that would last for three and a half centuries.

Vasco de Gama's first route to India.

Christopher Columbus, 1451-1506. The Italian explorer working for Spain, whose massive mistake changed the history of the World. He thought he was in India but actually discovered the massive Western Continents-"the New World." A fact he would never admit.

Artist impression of the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus and the first European ship lost in the Caribbean Sea.

Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese by birth, but sailed for Spain, 1480-1521. Original leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Sir Francis Drake,1540-1596. Greatest English "Sea Dog" and first Englishman to circumnavigate the World.

The new and improved English "racing galleon." Faster and better armed than their Spanish contemporaries. An example of Queen Elizabeth Tudor and England's new ideas of quality vs quantity in the race to control the trade routes and growing European Worldwide empires.