California Presidio's-Protecting a Colony on the Cheap

 

The Presidio at the colonial village of Santa Barbara and other strategic posts in far flung Alta California was Spain's attempt to hold this vast area with minimal troops. To protect Alta California, the Spanish divided the colony into four military districts, each centered upon a Presidio (fort) with a small garrison. Each Presidio was tasked with the protection of the missions in their military district.  

The first was El Presidio de San Diego, founded on July 16, 1769. San Diego was responsible for the mission San Diego, San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, and San Gabriel.  El Presidio de San Carlos de Monterey, founded on June 3, 1770, protected San Luis Obispo, San Miguel, San Antonio, Soledad San Carlos and San Juan Bautista. El Presidio de San Francisco founded December 17, 1776, was responsible for Santa Cruz, San Jose, Santa Clara, San Francisco, San Rafael and Solano. The last Spanish Presidio was El Presidio de Santa Barbara, established April 12, 1782, that guarded La Purisima, Santa Barbara, San Buenaventura, San Fernando, and Santa Ines. 

 The chapel was a key building at each Presidio as the religious needs of the troops and conversion of the Natives were seen as keys to holding the colony.

Conquistador's Warriors for Gold, God and Glory

Conquistador's, the Spanish warriors of the three "G's," "Gold, God and Glory."  Armed with the latest weapons and modern tactics (for the 16th century that is) infused with the task of both spreading the power of Spain and God's word, the Conquistadors were a true force to be reckoned with.  Sublimely confident in their strength and righteousness; they time and time again challenged enemies many times their own numbers while carving out the Spanish Empire in the New World and the far away Philippines. 

The three "G's" guaranteed ultimate success for true Conquistadors.  Their victories brought them fame and "Glory" throughout the European World (as well as envy); the conquered saw them quite differently.  In a time of religious intolerance, they were extremely intolerant of "false beliefs" as in name of "God" they brought the words of the Catholic Faith to all they conquered (all that survived the conquest that is).  Those Conquistador's that died believed they would be welcomed in Heaven for doing God's work (much like the Crusader and Jihadist of early centuries).  Victories over cultures rich in material wealth (especially gold and silver) and land brought them untold wealth.  "Gold" was their preferred form of payment but silver, jewels, land and slaves all enriched victorious Conquistador's.  Many a Conquistador gained wealth worth millions of dollars in Modern value, and just as fast wasted in a wild lavish lifestyle.

For the better part of the 1500's the Conquistador's carved out the World's most wide-ranging Empire on five continents (Europe, Africa, South America, North America and Asia) parts of which last until the 20th century.  Untold hundreds of billions of dollars' worth of wealth flowed into the coffers of the Spanish Empire and the economy of Europe for centuries from these conquests. Whole cultures were destroyed and the political as well as religious face of the planet changed forever by the Conquistador's, all in the name of "Gold, God and Glory."

The Conquistador's-Warriors for Glory, God and Gold

From the 15th to 17 centuries a class of warriors roamed the globe searching for glory, wealth, the wish to spread the Catholic faith and new worlds to conquer for the Empires of Spain and Portugal-the Conquistadors. These warriors for glory, God and gold, believed they were spreading civilization and the True Faith to the barbarian pagans they conquered.

Armed with the latest weapons and armor yet developed in Europe and battle tested in both the Old and New Worlds, the conquistadors were a potent force in the capture of new colonies and destruction of numerous native cultures.

 Across three continents, the conquistadors helped to spread the Roman Catholic faith as their armies always contained missionaries as well as warriors. (Note the image of the Virgin and Child on the flag and the soldiers in prayer in the background.)

By the end of the 17th century the Spanish and Portuguese Empires were on every known inhabited continent.  Most of the New World was in the control of these two imperial titans, as was the vast natural wealth of these land.  Other European countries were quick to follow the example of the conquistadors, and soon most of the New World was claimed as colonies by the powers of the Old World.  The wealth they took would flow for centuries into the coffers of the Europeans further enriching their nations and encouraging yet more colonial expansion.

The Aztec Warrior

From the common conscript soldier to the elite "knights" of the Jaguar and Eagle Warriors, the Aztec Army was a brave confident force that had only known victory for over a century of conflicts-until the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.

This Jaguar Warrior clearly illustrates the two pieces of equipment most commonly used by Aztec warriors, the small shield and the stone edged wooden Maquahuitl sword.

Commanders with standards from the Codex Mendoza. Note the elaborate costumes, use of feathers and the razor-sharp stone tipped tepoztopilli spears (usually five and a half feet long) of the officers.
Ranks awarded for captured prisoners and imperial officers, Codex Mendoza.
The capture of prisoners was one of the main goals of Central American Pre-Colombian wars. Those who were most successful quickly rose in rank and privileges within the army and society. Here in the codex are listed the stages of honors given to a warrior for the increasing numbers of prisoners captured. Note the sixth honor is entry into the elite Jaguar Warrior Class. The Lower eight figures are officers of the empire. The rank is delineated by the ever more elaborate feathers and costume design of the officers.

Warriors armed with the Maquahuitl (obsidian sword) and shield, note the eagle warrior in the lead, from the Florentine Codex.
Ranged weapons were varied and included:

The atlatl,a spear thrower that allowed longer range than a basic hand thrown spear.
The tlahuitolli, bow, ranged from light weight with short range weapons to some heavy weight that reportedly had a range of several hundred yards. All bows fired the mitl-stone tipped arrow.
The tematlatl was a sling made from maguey fiber. This was the ranged weapon most feared by the Spanish as it was often aimed at the unprotected face with deadly accuracy.
In addition to the maquahuitl and tepoztopilli, Aztec soldiers had access to a variety of additional wood and stone hand weapons.
The huitzauhqui was a club/mace sometimes with obsidian blades. These were about the size of a modern baseball bat but could be up to twice this size when yielded by a very strong warrior.
The tecpatl was a double-bladed dagger with a nine-inch length, excellent for close in fighting.
A weakness of all Aztec weapons was their stone and wood construction. The former dulled or chipped readily and the latter was no match against steel blades.
Protective gear/armor of the Aztecs was very minimal. It was designed to be light and give a limited protection against the stone tipped weapons of the Aztecs traditional Central American enemies. This equipment was basically made of two items the Chimalli and the Ichcahuipilli.

The Chimalli were small round shields made of wood or woven cane stalks often covered with cloth or feathers. They could be elaborately decorated for warriors of importance.

The Ichcahuipilli was a form of quilted cotton armor and inch or two thick. This padding was normally worn over the chest and back with the arms and legs unprotected. This gave such good protection against Indian stone tipped arrows that many Spanish soldiers would adopt this armor and continue to wear this style of protection when facing Indians well into the 18th century.
Eagle and Jaguar Warriors from the Codex Mendoza.

The tlahuiztli were the distinctive costume suits worn by the elite warrior classes. These usually covered the entire body including the head which often was covered in a form of helmet. These suits give a limited additional armor covering-especially if the costume included leather animal skins.
While adequate against their traditional enemies, the protective gear of the Aztec warriors was virtually useless against the steel weapons, iron tipped crossbow bolts, musket and cannon balls of the Spanish.
Aztec weapons could and did maim and kill their enemies who were similarly armed and protected. But in most conflicts capture of enemies was much preferred over killing them-dead men could not be sacrificed to the gods. So, it is not surprising that the majority of Aztec weapons could be readily used to stun an opponent to ease in his capture. This tactical choice and the limited strength of Aztec weapons and armor would prove a great hindrance to their army when they met the modern armed forces of the Spanish.

The Galleon-work horse of the Spanish Empire

The Spanish Galleon became synonymous with trade and treasure in the 16th and 17th centuries. They were also the backbone warships of the major European navies of the day.

Cross section of a typical galleon design. Note the two-gun decks, supplies stored in the lowest hold and the ballast stones that were critical to the ship's stability and one of the keyways to identify sunken shipwrecks to this very day. The latter was due to the fact that type of ballast stones unique as they came from streams and rivers near the shipyard that produced the ships.

Galleons were massive ships for their time and very expensive, they were therefore embellished with the finest craftsmanship and artistic designs affordable. The tall "castle" in the Stern was designed as an elevated fighting platform for the soldiers in the crew and was a hallmark of the galleon design.

From 1566 to 1790 the yearly "Treasure Fleet" transported the income of Spain's American Colonial Empire to Spain.  Fleets of twenty or more galleons would assemble in Cuba and sail in a convoy through the dangerous Caribbean waters (storms, Hurricanes and pirate/Privateer raiders being the greatest threats) to Europe.  In today's money it was not unusual for each treasure galleon to carry between 500 million and a billion dollars' worth of silver, gold, gems and jewelry on board-a tempting prize for pirates and the navies of Spain's enemies.

One a year from 1565 to 1815, the Manila-Acapulco Galleon, "the Black Ship," carried the years taxes, trade good and passengers from the Spanish East Indies in Asia to New Spain. The cargo then was transported overland to coastal seaports to join the annual Treasure Fleet to Spain.


 In large scale sea battles, Galleons were the major warships of the age.  Most galleon were armed with forty to sixty cannon and hundreds of soldiers.  The main tactic was to fire the ships cannon while closing with the enemy.  When the ships were close enough to grapple (throw ropes with hooks to catch and pull the enemy ship towards the attacker) the soldiers would board the opponent and capture them through hand-to-hand combat. 

As with all military technologies, the Galleon was eventually superseded by newer designs and technological advances. By the 18th century Galleons were but memories of a more "romantic" age.

From Reconquista to the New World

From the first Muslim invasions of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century to the last decades of the15th century, the Christian rulers of the various kingdoms of this land fought to retake the land in the name of Christ. As the centuries progressed more and more of the lands were retaken through the "Reconquista."


By 1492, the monarchs Queen Isabella of Castile & Leon and King Ferdinand of Aragon (both descended from the king of Leon) had married, uniting their joint kingdoms into what would become Spain and completed the Reconquista by eliminating Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in Western Europe.

One of the benefits of the final actions of the Reconquista was the "liberation" of land, properties and much of the wealth of the Muslims.  A large portion of these riches now came into the hands of the King and Queen, just in time to fund a risky venture to discover a shorter trade route to India under the command of one Cristóbal Colón. 

In 1493, Cristóbal Colón returned to Spain claiming to have found a new route to Asia and the "Indies."  It would take several more voyages by multiple European Explorers to eventual establish that Colón had actually discovered a hitherto unknown land-"the New World." The centuries long Reconquista to retake the Iberian Peninsula for Christianity now lead to the opening of entire "new" continents to colonization and religious conversion.

Conquest of the Inca

Atahualpa was the13th and last fully independent Inca Emperor.  His total rule began after defeated his brother Huáscar in a civil war completed just as Pizarro entered the empire.

Francisco Pizarro was a conquistador in his fifties who decided on one last throw of the dice to find and conquer new lands for God, Glory and Gold. He had three great advantages over the Incan Empire- a "modern" military with the latest weapons (warhorses, war dogs, crossbows, muskets, cannons, steel weapons, steel & iron armor) and tactics, European diseases (smallpox being the deadliest) that had recently devastated the Empire and the Incan Civil War that had further disrupted the Incan government and military.

With a force of less than 200 conquistadors (at least sixty of which were cavalry) and one cannon, Pizarro began the hazardous march into the land of the Inca. 

Destruction of Atahualpa's guards and his capture by the Spanish conquistadors of Pizarro.

After luring Atahualpa and a large part of his nobles into an ambush, the emperor was captured and thousands of his men butchered.  Pizarro then demanded a massive ransom for the Inca. The ransom of 22,000 lbs. of gold and 44,000 lbs. of silver did not save the life of Atahualpa, for political reasons he was murdered shortly after the ransom was paid. The massive payment did make the conquistadors filthy rich. The value in today's money paid to each of Pizarro's cavalrymen for the capture of the emperor was over 1.5 million dollars, each infantryman received around a million dollars' worth of gold and silver. Pizarro's share was around 100 million and the "King Fifth" (the amount of all New World income paid directly to the king of Spain) was close to 1/4 billion dollars. Not bad for one day's fighting. The capture and subsequent murder of the Inca Emperor Atahualpa put Pizarro in virtual control of the empire.

While the people of the Inca would bravely, yet futilely attempt to resist the Spanish for the next thirty years, their empire was for all intents and purposes conquered in that one fateful battle. A battle where a handful of Spaniards changed the history of the South America.

Loading Spanish galleons with the kings fifth of the initial Inca treasure taken by Pizarro and his conquistadors. 

Pizarro would rule his new conquests for less than ten years before his greed and mismanagement brought his own destruction, not at the hands of the Incas he had conquered but by that of his own comrades for Pizarro was murdered by his own captains and officers that he cheated and mistreated. His greed led to his death after he had succeeded in one of the greatest conquests in the "Age of Colonialism."

Inca

Inca was not the name of the people, rather "Inka" was the title of the ruler.  The Spanish mistakenly called the people this title.  The people of the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, which meant "four parts together," as the empire was divided into four major administrative centers.
Inca gold representation of the Sun god.  As with the Aztec's, gold was so plentiful in the Inca Empire it had little value except to make into pieces of art, both religious and for personal use.
Inca silver ancestor gods.

Inca gold cup with the Sun god Inti. The vast treasure in silver and gold art works of the Inca drew the avarice attentions of the Spanish Conquistadors.

The "Lost City" of Macu Picu is an example of the sophisticated engineering feats of the people of the Inca Empire.

The quality of their stone construction techniques was so great that these buildings have withstood more than 500 years of the ravages of nature, including numerous earthquakes.

One of the greatest accomplishments of the Incan engineers was the massive road network of over 6000 miles that tied the empire together.

One of the best sources of our knowledge of the Inca comes from their burial sites.  Those of the rich and powerful have large stores of items that tell much about their culture and technologies.

Inca Fortress of Sayhuman at Cusco is another example of the precise stonework that was a hallmark of the engineering skills of the people of the Inca.

The massive size of the stones (many weigh over twenty tons) is readily noticeable in this picture.

Lama, the largest pack animal in Pre-Columbian America. It is one of the wonders of these impressive people that their massive stone engineering works were completed without assistance of any large draft animals. Note the terraced fields in the background that date to the time of the Inca Empire. The use of terraced farmland greatly improved the available food for the Inca Nation.

Timeline of Inca Culture. 

Major Results of the Conquest of Mexico

The century+ old Aztec Empire was completely destroyed in less than two years by the Spanish under Cortez.

The Aztec Empire was replaced by the new Spanish Empire. Mexico became New Spain and much of the rest of the Americas came under Spanish rule. Mexico would not gain its independence until the 1820's and the last Spanish colonies in the New World (Cuba and Porto Rico) would not be lost until 1898.

The beautiful works of art that Aztecs made of gold became a lure to the conquistadors who lusted for wealth.

For more than two centuries, the Spanish would take tons of gold from their new colonies. This wealth would pay for wars, palaces and all forms of pleasures, enriching the coffers of the Europeans and funding more colonial conquests.

The great engineering works of the Aztecs and the beautiful city of Tenochtitlan were smashed and replaced by European structures. The ruins of the Temple Mayor, once almost 200 feet high, stand mute testimony to the destruction of the Aztec culture. The religion of blood sacrifice and multiple gods died as had so many of its victims-seeped in blood.

Catholic priests and missionaries converted the peoples of the new Spanish Empire. The Roman Catholic religion replaced the gods of old. War, slavery, maltreatment and most deadly of all-diseases of the "Old World" for which the peoples of the Western Hemisphere had no immunities, decimated the populations of the new colonies. With the loss of 90% of the work force new sources of labor would be needed. Slaves from Africa were seen as the best choice for much needed labor in the "New World." Africans were inexpensive and coming from tropical climates were thought to be less susceptible to the fevers and diseases that were deadly to the Europeans (Yellow Fever being the most feared). For the next three centuries, tens of millions of slaves would be taken to the Americas as more and more colonies were established by the Europeans. The conquest of the Aztecs established a pattern to follow for the European nations greedy for wealth, new lands and prestige. "Modern" European weapons, and the organization of powerful colonial powers would set out to conquer the rest of the known and unknown World. For three centuries the European empires would grow, numerous wars would be fought (culminating in the greatest war in history, World War Two), countless millions would die, the World and human history would be changed forever.

Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico

Aztec (Mexica)Emperor Moctezuma II, ruler of the empire when Cortez and his conquistadors arrived. His fatalistic view of history and religion influenced his decisions on how to deal with the Spanish Invaders. His original belief that the Spanish were of Divine origin was a critical mistake. His apprehension at angering the gods caused him to delay any decisive action until it was too late-a fatal error for the Aztec Empire.

Cortez was quick to exploit Aztec weaknesses, he encouraged the belief that he was Divine with "supernatural powers," and exploited the hatred among neighboring tribes that the Aztec's had created in their endless wars for human sacrifices to their gods. Here the Lady Dona Marina (La Malinche), the main interpreter for Cortez, advises him as he meets with local leaders who have joined him in the war against the Aztecs. Note the feathered headdress of leadership that Cortez has adopted and the Spanish soldier that is leading Indian warriors.



One of the greatest "supernatural powers" of the Spanish was gunpowder. Cannons like this one were totally unknown in the "New World" and seemed to be the voice of doom from the gods to the Aztecs. Muskets, crossbows, warhorses, wardogs, steel armor and weapons were all unknown before the Spanish arrived and completely out classed the Stone Age weapons and armor of wood and cloth of the Aztecs.

The outcome of the initial engagements between the Spanish and Indians were overwhelmingly in favor of the Spanish. Each victory seemed to prove the divine nature of Cortez and brought more and more Native American Allies to his support, from the tribe's hostile to the Aztecs.

The emperor allowed the Spanish to enter his capital city. When Cortez and Moctezuma II met in person it took very little time for the latter to realize the Spaniard was not Divine but an all to normal greedy human. Cortez then seized the emperor, making him a prisoner in his own palace.

Soon the people revolted against the Spanish, Moctezuma II was killed (by who is unclear to this day) and the Spanish had to fight their way out of the city. Unable to use their full strength while retreating along the causeways above the lake, the Spanish suffered their only defeat at the hands of the Aztecs.  So many fell, over 400 Spanish and thousands of their Indian allies, that the disaster became known as "La Noche Triste" (the Night of Sorrows).  Cortez saw this as a temporary setback, the riches of the capital and empire were too great to turn back now, revenge would be overwhelming and brutal.



Using modern European arms and armor and his Indian allies (eventually more than 50,000 Indian warriors fought as allies of the Spanish) Cortez defeated the Aztec Armies and fought his way back to Tenochtitlan.



The Aztec Capital was built upon lake Texcoco with three causeways connecting to the land. Fresh water was brought from the mountains by dual aqueducts, while food supplies were bought from the mainland by canoe or by human porters via the causeways. The lake was both the greatest defense and weakness of the capital, as it not only protected the city it also isolated it from food and clean water.

To subdue the city, Cortez destroyed the aqueducts, forcing the people of the capital to drink the polluted water from the lake. He then blockaded the city from food and reinforcements by using thirteen brigs (small sailing boats that could also use oars) armed with cannon, musketeers, and crossbowmen that he designed and built at the lake. As the people became weaker, Cortez launched his attacks by destroying every building, street by street, throughout the city.


Starvation, foul water, and the greatest killer-smallpox soon decimated the city's population. Tens of thousands died. The survivors fought on hoping for a miracle, but their gods had failed them, and no miracle came, only death and destruction.

The fighting in the streets of the capital was brutal hand to hand. In a futile final stand the last Aztec warriors massed at the Great Temple Pyramid and fought step by step up its side until the last priests and warriors died near the alter stones that symbolized their lost culture. With religious zeal the Spanish and their Allies tore the hated temple down stone by stone. The materials from this and the other once great Aztec buildings were used as land fill and for the construction of a new European style city-Mexico City.