Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico

Aztec (Mexica)Emperor Moctezuma II, ruler of the empire when Cortez and his conquistadors arrived. His fatalistic view of history and religion influenced his decisions on how to deal with the Spanish Invaders. His original belief that the Spanish were of Divine origin was a critical mistake. His apprehension at angering the gods caused him to delay any decisive action until it was too late-a fatal error for the Aztec Empire.

Cortez was quick to exploit Aztec weaknesses, he encouraged the belief that he was Divine with "supernatural powers," and exploited the hatred among neighboring tribes that the Aztec's had created in their endless wars for human sacrifices to their gods. Here the Lady Dona Marina (La Malinche), the main interpreter for Cortez, advises him as he meets with local leaders who have joined him in the war against the Aztecs. Note the feathered headdress of leadership that Cortez has adopted and the Spanish soldier that is leading Indian warriors.



One of the greatest "supernatural powers" of the Spanish was gunpowder. Cannons like this one were totally unknown in the "New World" and seemed to be the voice of doom from the gods to the Aztecs. Muskets, crossbows, warhorses, wardogs, steel armor and weapons were all unknown before the Spanish arrived and completely out classed the Stone Age weapons and armor of wood and cloth of the Aztecs.

The outcome of the initial engagements between the Spanish and Indians were overwhelmingly in favor of the Spanish. Each victory seemed to prove the divine nature of Cortez and brought more and more Native American Allies to his support, from the tribe's hostile to the Aztecs.

The emperor allowed the Spanish to enter his capital city. When Cortez and Moctezuma II met in person it took very little time for the latter to realize the Spaniard was not Divine but an all to normal greedy human. Cortez then seized the emperor, making him a prisoner in his own palace.

Soon the people revolted against the Spanish, Moctezuma II was killed (by who is unclear to this day) and the Spanish had to fight their way out of the city. Unable to use their full strength while retreating along the causeways above the lake, the Spanish suffered their only defeat at the hands of the Aztecs.  So many fell, over 400 Spanish and thousands of their Indian allies, that the disaster became known as "La Noche Triste" (the Night of Sorrows).  Cortez saw this as a temporary setback, the riches of the capital and empire were too great to turn back now, revenge would be overwhelming and brutal.



Using modern European arms and armor and his Indian allies (eventually more than 50,000 Indian warriors fought as allies of the Spanish) Cortez defeated the Aztec Armies and fought his way back to Tenochtitlan.



The Aztec Capital was built upon lake Texcoco with three causeways connecting to the land. Fresh water was brought from the mountains by dual aqueducts, while food supplies were bought from the mainland by canoe or by human porters via the causeways. The lake was both the greatest defense and weakness of the capital, as it not only protected the city it also isolated it from food and clean water.

To subdue the city, Cortez destroyed the aqueducts, forcing the people of the capital to drink the polluted water from the lake. He then blockaded the city from food and reinforcements by using thirteen brigs (small sailing boats that could also use oars) armed with cannon, musketeers, and crossbowmen that he designed and built at the lake. As the people became weaker, Cortez launched his attacks by destroying every building, street by street, throughout the city.


Starvation, foul water, and the greatest killer-smallpox soon decimated the city's population. Tens of thousands died. The survivors fought on hoping for a miracle, but their gods had failed them, and no miracle came, only death and destruction.

The fighting in the streets of the capital was brutal hand to hand. In a futile final stand the last Aztec warriors massed at the Great Temple Pyramid and fought step by step up its side until the last priests and warriors died near the alter stones that symbolized their lost culture. With religious zeal the Spanish and their Allies tore the hated temple down stone by stone. The materials from this and the other once great Aztec buildings were used as land fill and for the construction of a new European style city-Mexico City.

Aztecs the Warrior Empire

The founding of the capital city of the Aztec's, Tenochtitlan, was based on a sign from the gods. Where an eagle was seen killing a rattlesnake on a cactus would be the site for the Aztecs to build their city.



The Aztec Empire was built by warfare. In Pre-Columbian times their army was never defeated. All warriors aspired to reach the special ranks of Eagle or Jaguar Warrior castes as they were the elites of the Aztec Army


The great temple of Tenochtitlan, dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli (war & sun god) and Tlaloc (rain god).

The Aztec was the largest empire in Central America, but not the only civilized culture with cities, armies and power. The Tlaxcala were especially strong foes the Aztecs were constantly fighting.












The Sun Calendar of the Aztecs was both a sacred calendar (Tonalpohualli) of 260 days and a yearly one (Xiuhpohualli) of 365 days. The lives of upwards of 25 million people of the Aztec Empire were ruled by the priest's interpretation of this calendar.



The pantheon of Aztec gods was very large (see links site). Every key aspect of life had a representative god. This is Tlaloc, "He Who Makes Things Sprout," the god of rain, lightning and thunder. All gods needed sacrifices, but only the most important needed human blood daily.














          Captain General Hernando Cortez, commander of the Spanish troops that landed in Mexico in 1519. An event that caused great upheaval and eventual destruction of the Aztec World.


La Malinche-Dona Marina, the native lover, advisor, and interpreter of Cortez. Her assistance was critical to the Spanish Conquest of Mexico.

European Renaissance Explorers-Redrawing the World one Trip at a Time

Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal 1394-1460. His vision of sending merchant ships around Africa to India in the 15th century would begin the Age of Discovery. It would also start the race for colonies outside of Europe that would result in the great European colonial empires of the 19th & 20th centuries.

Bartholomew Dias 1550-1600. This explore from Portugal was the first European to round the Cape Horn of Africa. From this point on it would only be a matter of time before a sea trade route to India would be established.

Route of Dias around Africa.

Vasco de Gama, circa 1460-1524. First European to actually reach India by sea. Portugal, being first, would establish a profitable trade route with their colony in India that would last for three and a half centuries.

Vasco de Gama's first route to India.

Christopher Columbus, 1451-1506. The Italian explorer working for Spain, whose massive mistake changed the history of the World. He thought he was in India but actually discovered the massive Western Continents-"the New World." A fact he would never admit.

Artist impression of the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus and the first European ship lost in the Caribbean Sea.

Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese by birth, but sailed for Spain, 1480-1521. Original leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Sir Francis Drake,1540-1596. Greatest English "Sea Dog" and first Englishman to circumnavigate the World.

The new and improved English "racing galleon." Faster and better armed than their Spanish contemporaries. An example of Queen Elizabeth Tudor and England's new ideas of quality vs quantity in the race to control the trade routes and growing European Worldwide empires.

Renaissance Study Guide for April 8

Renaissance & Exploration Study Guide Know these Key Terms: Protestant, Roman Catholic, Sea Dogs, Renaissance, Privateer, Serf, Civil Service, Apprentice, Barbarian, Reformation, Bleeding, Yin & Yang, Colony, Guild, Magna Carta, Shinto, Black Death, Protestant, Circumnavigation, Clergy, Patron, Pax Romana, Machiavelli, Crusade, Silk Road, Christopher Columbus, Hundred Years War, Charlemagne, Samurai Know five quality facts for each of the following: Elizabeth I, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Durer, Portuguese Explorers, Henry VIII, Reasons Rome Fell, Renaissance Explorers, Parts of a Castle, Ming Dynasty Know these locations on the attached map of Europe: Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, English Channel, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, France, Germany, Great Britain/United Kingdom, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey The map on page 672 of your text book has all the correct locations of the above locations.

Michelangelo Master of Marble and Fresco

Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, 1475-1564, was one of the greatest artists of the Renaissance and one of the most tormented. His often-unhappy life was compensated by his love for his work. A master in stone he is equally famous for one of the greatest fresco masterpieces ever created.

His David, 1501-1504, is considered by most to be the ultimate marble statue of the Renaissance. Michelangelo justly famous for his ability to capture a moment of movement in his statues, as the David clearly demonstrates.

The Sistine Chapel 1508-1512, the ceiling fresco is 130'6" x 43'5".

Moses 1513-1515, One of the many statues from the tomb of Pope Julius II.

Lorenzo de Medici 1526-31. One of three statues the great master completed for Lorenzo's tomb.

Detail from the Pieta,1498-1499, the peace of death.

The mother morns the loss of her son, from the Pieta 1498-1499.

The Creator of the Universe bestows life to man. A detail from the Sistine Chapel.

Romanini Piet 1564, his last work. Even in his last days, when every movement was full of pain, his love for his art pushed him to continue his work. In this case, he was working on this statue less than a week before he died.

Elizabeth I- "Good Queen Bess"

Princess Elizabeth (1533-1558).

Coronation regalia of Queen Elizabeth I 1558-1603.

Her firm belief was that investing in industry, the sciences and arts would make here country stronger. She constantly strove to attain these goals throughout her reign. To her people, tired of the bloodshed rule of her predecessors, Elizabeth was a popular enlightened monarch. With much depth of feeling they took to calling her "Good Queen Bess."

She refused to have any man in a position of authority over her, so remained unmarried. This earned her the title "the Virgin Queen" (and yes Virginia was named after her due to this nickname).

The Golden Hind, the ship of Elizabeth's greatest "Sea Dog" (privateer)-Sir Francis Drake. This ship under Drake's command was the first English vessel to circumnavigate the globe, 1577-1580.

In response to the constant Sea Dog raids of his colonial fleets and possessions, Spanish King Philip II launched the Spanish Armada with the intention of landing an army of conquest in England in 1588. Tradition has it that the Queen Elizabeth appeared before her troops at Tilbury, giving a powerful speech to rally them for the coming battle. In her most famous line she said, "I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England." Her strong leadership is often credited with assisting in the great military victory that followed.

The Spanish Armada Campaign was a decisive victory for the English. Virtually the entire Spanish fleet's combat ability was destroyed in action or by the storms that followed the survivors around the British Idles and back to Spain. For minimal loses, the English defeated the greatest power, and largest empire, of the day. Spain would send two more weaker armadas towards England, and both would suffer similar fates. Hence forth England's star would be ascending, while Spain's slowly fell from the heavens.

Elizabeth Tudor was one of the few people who have a period of time named after them. The Elizabethan Age today brings images of England at the height of Renaissance and a Golden Age of advances in the arts and sciences that would soon change the World. When she came to the throne of England, her country was a minor player in world affairs. She left England as one of the up-and-coming World Powers, a land of enlightenment making its first major steps on the road to become one of the greatest empires in all history.

Leonardo da Vinci

Lenardo da Vinci the ultimate Renaissance man-April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519

Self-portrait red chalk on paper circa 1512-1515, Royal Library of Turin



His creative mind was centuries ahead of the rest of the World. Here is his design for a bike, from one of his early 16th century folios. Mass produced versions looking like this design were not made until the late 19th century.

As a scientist and inventor he was enamored with the concept of mans ability to fly. Here is one of his designs for a man powered machine.

Human and animal anatomy was also a passion of Leonardo. He felt that a better understanding of what was under the skin, flesh and muscle would make him a better artist.

Here we see his "drawing" from the inside out concept on this incomplete St. Jerome sketch. The bones are clearly visible as Leonardo is starting to "flesh out" his creation. This drawing is another of the many works that the great master never completed.


Portrait of Ginevra de' Benci, circa 1474/-478, oil on panel, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC

The young man in this photo clearly shows the average size of most of Leonardo's portraits.

Virgin of the Rocks circa 1495-1508 oil on panel National Gallery, London. This is an improved version of his earlier work Madonna of the Rocks. Both as famous for the detailed and beautiful backgrounds that were a hallmark of many of his works.



These two pages of original line sketches by Leonardo are examples of his varied interests in all aspects of his World.
Among the objects depicted are, men, feathers, wings, gauges, complex machinery and elements of nature.

These reconstructions of his famous mechanical "robot" knight demonstrate some of our continued infatuation with Leonardo, Renaissance Master.