The Great Wall

Designed as much to keep Chinese in as to keep Barbarians out of China, the Great Wall is considered one of the greatest human engineering feats of all time. Its overall length has never been full established but is well in excess of 8,850km (5,500 miles). Designed to stop raids, slow down invaders and warn the empire when and where major barbarian assaults had occurred, the wall protected the northern frontiers for several dynasties (Ch'in, T'ang and Ming making the greatest use of the Wall for this purpose). The wall also served to control trade, raise taxes via trade and limit who could enter and leave the Empire as citizens, merchants and visitors traveled through the various gateways and cities that were incorporated in the Wall.
The Great Wall was first completed by Qin Shi Hunagdi in the Second Century BCE. Over the next 1800 years the wall was strengthened or allowed to fall into ruin dependent upon the dynasty ruling China. The Qin, Han and Ming Dynasties felt the Wall was a critical part of the national defense while the Yuan abandoned the Wall as useless (being the very "Barbarians" that the wall was designed to contain this was a logical move). Most of the Wall that is visible today are sections the Ming built-rebuilt in the 16th-17 centuries. The Great Wall was finally abandoned by the Qing Dynasty in the mid-1600's for much the same reasons as did the Yuan. In the end the Wall was only as good a defense as the soldiers that manned its bastions. When the quality of the army declined the defensive value of the Wall declined as well, soon the Wall was breached and the dynasty it defended died.

Sun Tzu and the Art of War

Circa 500 BCE the Chinese General Sun Tzu composed the world's first textbook on military strategy. His basic tactics are as applicable today as they were 25 centuries ago: "All warfare is based on deception," "opportunities multiply as they are seized," "there has never been a protracted war from which a country has benefited" or "if ignorant both of your enemy and yourself, you are certain to be in peril."

>This traditional copy of "the Art of War" is several centuries old. Sun Tzu's book became known to the West in the late 18th Century and has been a component of military studies ever since.

Dynasties Come and Dynasties Go

Life Cycle of a Dynasty Birth: Revolts and wars following the death of the previous dynasty eventually leave a single strong victor-the new dynasty. Youthful: full of high energy, the new dynasty aggressively extends its control over China, launches a series of social and economic “reforms” and expands or secures its borders with its neighbors. Middle Age: content with its successes, the dynasty is now at the height of its power, secure at home and abroad the dynasty enters a state of internal and external peace and cultural advancement often referred to as a “Golden Age.” Old Age: resistant to change, the dynasty becomes stagnant and self-absorbed, the military becomes weak, border security fails, effects of natural disasters are worst due to weak central government action, unrest within the population increases as revolts become more common and the dynasty loses more and more control over the countryside. Death: revolts and war finally overwhelm the dynasty and a new period of unrest and warfare wracks the country until the next dynasty is born.

Qin Shi Huangdi, China's First Emperor

Qin Shi Huangdi, literally First Emperor Qin, is known by many names. Ch'in Shi Hunagti, was a common version of his title in the 20th Century. Born Ying Zhang, he was heir to the throne of the kingdom of Ch'in/Qin during the Waring States period. Through force of arms, he one by one conquered each of the independent kingdoms and in 221 BCE, created one unified empire that forever took his name Ch'in(a). Qin Shi Huangdi not only unified the Empire, he reformed the laws and created the form of Imperial government that was to last the next 2000 years. The written language of Chinese was reworked as well. He is even credited with completion of the first Great Wall of China (at the cost of perhaps a million lives). Today he is most famous in the West for his life size army of terra cotta warriors. Thousands of these works of art were buried to guard the tomb of the First Emperor. >These are modern 1/3 size copies of some of the soldiers of the Qin Army. His force of will remade China, but his dynasty barely out lived Qin Shi Huangdi. Oppressive leadership, ruinous taxes, palace intrigue and his early death, in 210 BCE, left the Empire ripe for revolt. After a brief fifteen years, the Qin Dynasty died at the hands of the Han Dynasty in 206 BCE. Short lived or not, Qin Shi Huangdi changed forever the history of the Middle Kingdom.

The Silk Road-the 1st Major International Trade Route

For more than a fifteen centuries goods and ideas traveled the mostly overland trades routes from East Asia, the subcontinent, and the Middle East to the lands of the Mediterranean. These routes are most often referred to as the "Silk Road" as this was the single most valuable commodity carried by the merchant traders.
Travel along these routes was dangerous and expensive. Every Empire, kingdom and city state along the Silk Road took their fair share of the profits through taxes, service charges and the like. From the cities of China to the great Eastern Roman city of Constantinople the goods flowed, and money flowed with them.  The massive wealth gained from this trade was a major reason for the long life of the Eastern Roman Empire (aka the Byzantine Empire)
But silk was not the only commodity carried, spices, gems, rare animals, slaves and numerous other valuable items traveled the route.
Gold flowed freely from West to East in a steady stream of negative trade balance from the coffers of the Europeans for the goods they treasured but could not produce.

An even more important item traveled with the merchants and their caravans-"ideas." Religions, inventions, such as paper (this is an ancient Chinese paper discussing Buddhism) stories, cultural concepts, all traveled along the Silk Road helping to spread the knowledge of mankind throughout three continents. On the negative side, contagious diseases such as the dreaded "Bubonic Plague" also traveled with the traders who used the Silk Road.

The Ottoman conquest of the Eastern Roman Empire did not end this trade, they simply increased the "carrying charges." The increased expense, and the possibility of cutting out the "Middleman" led several European kingdoms to look for alternate, cheaper trade routes. So, in 1492, a little-known Italian, sailing with three small Spanish ships set out for the riches of Asia and discovered a new world unknown to the peoples of the East and the history of mankind was massively changed forever.

Eastern Roman Empire-the Rome that Survived to the 15th Century

Most often called the Byzantium Empire by history, the Eastern Roman Empire far outlasted its more famous Western namesake. The trade of the Silk Road made the Eastern Roman Empire one of the richest empires of the pre-Renaissance World. This wealth was a major factor in the long survival of the Empire as well a major cause of its eventual conquest, as enemy after enemy was attracted to the untold riches the Empire held.

>Triple Walls of Emperor Theodosian

With its capital city of Constantinople protected by three sets of impregnable walls, the Eastern Roman Empire lasted almost a millennium after the fall of the Western Empire. The wealth of the Empire maintained these great fortifications as well as the excellent military need to defend them.


Justinian the Great brought the Eastern Empire to its highpoint of power and prestige. During his rule Latin was still the language of the Empire. As time passed Greek became the official language. Unfortunately, lesser emperors, civil wars and constant warfare with ever stronger enemies slowly whittled down the strength and borders of the Empire.

The Cathedral of Hagia Sophia, with its massive dome roof,is is an excellent example of the Roman engineering skills the Eastern Empire maintained for future rediscovery by Western Europe during the Renaissance.

The final collapse of the walls of Constantinople was brought about by a technology unknown to their builders-gunpowder. This 63cm (25 inch) siege cannon is similar to those that finally breached the walls of Constantinople in 1453 CE.

With the death of the last Eastern Roman Emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, at the hands of the Ottoman Turks of Mehmed II, twenty-two centuries of glorious and infamous rule of the Roman Empires ended, but not their influence. With the Renaissance, Western Europe rediscovered much of the knowledge of the Ancients, improved and expanded these ideas and eventually conquered the World, the Romans would have understood and been pleased.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire-an Object Lesson for All

>The remains of the Great Forum of Rome-power center of the Roman World

The total destruction of the Western Roman Empire is a warning to all future cultures. Barbarians care little for the culture, art, or society of their "enemies." Barbarians will strike hard at societies that are unwilling or unable to defend themselves. The "Fall of Rome" section of this blog lists many of the important reasons for the collapse of this great and one-time powerful civilization. Some of the causes were external, but most of the reasons for Rome's collapse were internal-they aided in their own destruction! This is the greatest object lesson of all-the greatest danger to any society comes from within! Any culture can self-destruct if its people are not diligent in their study of the lessons of past collapses.











>Ruins of Roman City of Sbeitla, Tunisia

>Remains of a Roman Government Building in Italy

>Aqueduct of New Carthage, smashed by Barbaians